Play of the Subconscious: on the Saṃskāras and Vāsanās in Classical Yoga Psychology

The present study attempts to deepen the existing scholarly understanding of the various conceptual issues related to the problem of unconscious in Indian philosophy. An attempt is made to determine and classify the semantic content of a selected number of psychological concepts, notably sarrzskiiras and viisaniis, as it is found in the philosophical and religiOUS texts of Patanjali's Yoga siitra and the basic commentarialliterature thereon. Seven main features, or functions, of these concepts in Yoga tradition are distinguished. Finally, some significant differences between Yoga psychology and Western psychoanalysis regarding the understanding of the nature of the subconscious are mentioned. The most important point of similarity is that according to both Yoga and psychoanalysis the subconscious is regarded as the determining factor in conscious life. Belonging to the core of the Indian psychological system, the conception of sa,!,skiiras and viisaniis in a way foreshadows the modem notion of the subconscious I unconscious / preconscious.

The problems related to the nature of consciousness are still a puzzle to modern philosophy and psychology. The Western psychoanalytical tradition since Freud has emphasized the role of unconscious desires and impulses in human behaviour. However, Indian psychology has been discussing the nature of the subconscious (unconscious! nonconscious! preconscious) from very ancient times. Starting around 500 B. C., various speculations regarding the nature of consciousness were systemized into coherent theoretical formulations which justify the term ·psychology'.' In response to its soteriological purposes, the classical Yoga school (darsana) has developed a peculiar psychology whose primary objective was to assist the yogin in reconstituting his consciousness. As a matter of fact, there is not even a synonym in India for what is called 'psychology' in the West. This fact has been fully appreciated by Mircea Eliade, who placed the word in quotation marks. 2 Of the same opinion was Ananda Coomaraswamy, who said, 1 Regarding the origins and early crystallization of the main theoretical psychological Indian concepts from the Vedic age, see N. Ross Reat. Indian philosophers are not interested in the facts, or rather statistical probabilities, for their own sake, but primarily in a liberating truth. The traditional and sacred psychology takes for granted that life (bhal'a, yEuE(J~) is a means to an end beyond itself, not to be lived at all costs. The traditionial psychology is not, in fact based on observation; it is a science of subjective experience. Its truth is not of the kind that is susceptibale of statistical demonstration; it iso ne that can only be verified by the expert contemplative. [ ... ] So whereas the empirical science is only concerned with the man himself 'in search of a soul', the metaphysical science is concerned with this self's immortal Self, the Soul of the soul. [ ... ] Hence, we call the traditional psychology a pneumatology rather than a science of the 'soul '.3 Evidently, any compartmentalisation of the homogenous structure of Indian darsanas, and especially Yoga's school theory into such divisions as 'psychology ', 'philosophy' or 'ethics' is no more than an artificial means of promoting the analysis and understanding a rather differently organized body of knowledge. There exist a few tentative studies of various aspects of Indian psychology, mostly by Indian authors, but these do not amount to a great deal and conceptually often leave much to be desired. 4 In his study on the classical Yoga system, George Feuerstein has once remarked that "the psychological dimension of Yoga is still a fairly untravelled territory awaiting a far-sighted explorer".5 Not pretending to be such a 'far-sighted explorer', in this paper I examine and classify various conceptual issues related to the problem of the unconscious in Indian philosophy. An attempt is made to determine the semantic content of a selected number of psychological concepts as found in the philosophical and religious texts of the Yoga tradition. There are concepts, notably saf!lskiiras and viisaniis, which can be taken to refer to unconscious mental states and dispositions. Only a scrupulous analysis of the contextual meaning of a concept creates an adequate base for a study of the Indian understanding of unconscious forces. First I give a general characterisation of some relevant concepts and then go into some problems regarding the functions of these concepts in a more detailed way, concentrating mainly on Patafijali's Yoga sutra and the basic commentarialliterature thereon. Finally, I shall mention some significant differences between Yoga psychology and Western psychoanalysis regarding the understanding of the nature of the subconscious. of consciousness. This large storehouse of dispositional factors is the dynamic aspect of the deep structure of human personality.
The active, dynamic aspect of sarrzskiiras is apparent from the aphorism m.9 of Yoga sutra, where two varieties of sarrzskiira are distinguished: those leading to the acctualisation of consciousness (vyutthiina) and those inducing restriction of consciousness (nirodha).
In order to denote the total stock of sarrzskiiras that have been called into existence by the volitional activity in either the past incarnations or present existences and that are the determinative factors of future embodiments, Pataiijali introduces the concept of iiSaya, which literary means 'deposit' or 'repository'. 6 As he says, adr~!a or karmiiSaya is produced by previous actions and produces results in the form of events producing experiences of pleasure and pain. 7 The karrnic residue can be acute or deferred. s Driven by klesas, many karmiisayas unite to produce one life-state and bear fruit in the form of birth, life-time and world experience. 9 Some of them have their fruition in this very life, while others are reserved for the next life after death. 10 When karmiisayas have their particular results, sarrzskiiras that are favourable to the enjoyment or suffering of such results are also manifested or excited, because without these cognition residues (jniiniiSaya) coming as accessory, this particular experience would not be possible. This means that enjoyment of a deva (divine being), for instance, is not possible without the excitement or manifestation of sarrzskiiras necessary for the enjoyment of a deva.
Hence it follows that these subliminal impressions are flowing as a stream without any beginning from life to life, and are formed continuosly as a result of the individual's world experience (bhoga). The pond of subliminal activators is conceived as pre-individual, because world experience somehow reinforces the grids, it does not originate them. A newly born individual is by no means a tabula rasa, rather his very birth is the product of the irresistible pull of the subliminal, unwatched (alak §ita), i. e. unconscious traces. It means that every 6 O. M. Koelman translates the compound kanniisaya as 'moral-value-deposit' and explains it as 'the sum-total of merits and demerits'. O. M. Koelman, Piitanjala Yoga: From Related Ego to Absolute Self, Poona: Papal Anthenaeum, 1970, 50. 7 te hliidaparitiipaphaliih -YS 11.14.
thought, feeling and impulse to action must be regarded as an actualization of the tremendous tension inherent in the subliminal pond. It is not only the individual perceptual differences that modify the resultant knowledge, but also saf!1skiiras colour every cognition. On the other hand, up-front mental activity in turn augments the subliminal deposit. Saf!1skiiras become stronger as they go on manifesting themselves in actions, and each repetition makes the potency stronger than before -in this manner perpetuating the vicious circle of phenomenal existence (saf!1Siira). Although often used by the exegetes and modem interpreters as a synonim of saf!1skiiras, viisaniis really stand for a different concept. 11 Commenting YS m.18 Vyasa says that saf!1Skiiras are oftwo kinds, viz. those appearing as habits (viisaniis), causing memory (smrti) and indirectly afflictions (kleSa), and those responsible for fruition of right or wrong deeds in previous births. 12 According to S. Dasgupta, viisanii is a later word than saf!1skiira, 'Viisanii generally refers to the tendencies of past lives, most of which lie dormant in the mind. Only those appear which can find scope in this life. But saf!1skiiras are the subconscious states which are being constantly generated by experience. Viisaniis are innate saf!1skiiras not acquired in this life'. 13 Derived from the root vas-" to dwell', 'to abide', 'remain', viisaniis are mentioned only twice in Yoga siitra, but are discussed extensively in commentaries, starting with Vyasa. 14 consequence, which is expressed in tenns of the production of corresponding viisanii configurations.
The viisaniis result from a memory of the experiences of a life generated by the fructification of the karmasaya and kept in the citta in the form of potency or impressions (sarrzskiiras). [ ... ] These viisanas are the causes of the instinctive tendencies, habits of deriving pleasures and pains peculiar to different animal lives. Thus the habits of a dog-life and its peculiar mode of taking its experiences and of deriving pleasure and pain are very different in nature from those a man-life, and must therefore be explained on the basis of an incipient memory in the form of potency impressions or sarrzskiiras of the experiences that an individual must have undergone in a previous dog-life of its own 16. In his commentary on the Yogabh~a IV.9, Vacaspati Misra says that when a person in consequence of his karma is born, e.g., as a cat, a viisanii corresponding to the person's karma arises in his consciousness. It means that viisaniis of the immediately preceding life are not necessarily activated in the next incarnation, it may happen after thousands of lives,I7 i.e. viisaniis are the cause of the instinctive tendencies or habits deriving pleasures and pains peculiar to different animal lives.
Thus, safJIskiiras are organized into configurations known as viisaniis or subliminal 'traces', or 'inclinations', which partly manifest in the idiosyncracies of the individual as particular habit patterns. Not by chance Vyasa in YB 11.13 likens the mind and its viisaniis to a fishing net with its knots (matsyajiilafJI granthibhiriva) having 'different shapes in all places and having beginninglessly pervaded by the viisaniis caused by experience (anubhava) of the maturation of karma from the kleSas'. These viisaniis, in turn, 'act as the propelling force for the creation of a new individual organism after the death of the present subject. They must be considered as aspatiaUatemporal constellations 'located' in the deep structure of the microcosm. ,18 It is interesting to note that the karmiisaya is regarded as ekabhiivika or unigenital and means the product of one life being accumulated in one life (ekajanmiivacchinnasya). From this point of view it may be contrasted with the viisaniis, which remain accumulated from thousands of previous lives from eternity and kept in the citta which remains constant in all the births and rebirths. It, therefore, keeps the memory of those various experiences in the form of safJIskiiras. And, as told in the siitra IV.lO, viisaniis are beginningless (aniiditl'a), because the primal will or desire to live (iisis) is permanent. From the Yoga point of view, what we know as desire for existence, clinging to life or fear of death (abhin iveSa. iitmasis) are also transmitted from previous life as viisaniis. Our citta endued with these beginningJess stream of impressions, getting some impressions manifested due to some cause (nimitta), functions for the superimposed enjoyment or suffering of the puru~a (YS 4.10).
It should be known that all viisaniis are sustained as pervaded by their cause, support, and object. Ignorance (al'idyii), or attachment and hatred leading to virtuous and vicious actions, are the cause (hetu) of viisanii; recollections, or the purpose of enjoyment of the results of actions, are called the end or fruit (phala) of viisanii. Ignorance is defined by Patafijali as seeing the non-eternal as eternal, the impure as pure, dissatisfaction as happiness, and the nonself as self. 19 Mind or citta in bondage is the support (iiSraya) of viisanii, while the sense objects whose cognition excites the particular impressions are the objects (iilambana) of those impressions. Now, if we can control and sub late these pervaders (vyiipaka) of l'iisanii, we can sublate the viisanii as well (4.11), though they may be beginningless. Vijfziina Bhik~u remarks in this connection that avidyii is the hetu of viisanii and the phala ('fruit') of viisanii is the same purpose or end for which actions producing dharma and adharma are accomplished.

2o
Again, sa1'Jlskiira, or jfziiniisaya, is produced by various kinds of cognitions with some interest -upe~iiniitmakajfziiniit. Sa1'Jlskiiras are produced as subtle impressions of cognitions, producing again different tendencies, proneness, and especially all recollections and recognitions. That's why, according to Dinesh Chandra Bhattacharya, ad!~!a constitutes more of the unconscious, and sarJlSkiiras more of the preconscious, however, in fact both function in such a mingled way that it is difficult to demarcate the different jurisdictions of the two.
Adr~!a as the unconscious selective force selects and excites some particular saT{fskiira to take definite fonn or image in the illusion. Though some external similar object is also regarded as excitant of sa1!fSkiira from innumerable saT{fskiiras abiding in our mind. 21 And it seems that this general approach to the relation between sa1'Jlskiira and ad!~!a is accepted by the Sarpkhya, Patafijala and Advaita Vedanta systems of philosophy with some differences.
According to the SaJ!1khya and Patafijala schools, the fundamental nature of the unconscious is more fine or subtle and is called aviveka -non-discrimination or avidyiiignorance. It is avidyii that veils from our vision the true nature of the Self (puru~a) and, producing a sense of ego in us, manifests as asmitii or egotism. Thus, all sorts of drives and activities, attachment to (riiga) and hatred for things (dve~a) are caused by the fundamental unconscious avidyii through asmitii. Our mind, being a modification of prakrti, is endued with three qualities, entities, or forces, gu~as: sattva (intelligence stuff), rajas (energy), and tamas (inertia). The consciousness stuff (mahat) is the pure sattva where rajas and tamas exist as subordinated elements. And it is the tamas gu~a in the depths of our mind (manas) that accounts for all false notions, for all inertia and idleness, and other vices such as narrowness, jealousy, etc. All those drives and inclinations proceed from avidyii and are regulated according to safJlskiiras accumulated in our mind through previous activities and cognitions (pravrtti). Prakrti, the primal material cause of the universe, is also to be regarded as subconscious in the general cosmic sense and, being the primal state of collective gu~as, is the radical storehouse of all drives and cognitions. And avidyii, in this case, is a more specific 'individual' aspect of the unconscious, directing our psychic life and abiding in our mind in the form of the impressions of false cognitions and notions (bhrama safJlskiira riipa). Thus, ignorance or ne science as the ontological cause of all psychomental states (cittavrttis) refers to a peculiar cognitive condition of man who due to fluctuations (vrtti) of the mental machinery (citta) fails to recognize his transcendental true Self-Awareness (Puru~a). That is why Bhoja, commenting on YS IV.22, declares that any knowledge whose object is not liberation from this metaphysical ignorance is valueless.
Interestingly, for Yoga the principal unconscious motivations, equally as springs of actions, are not only safJlskiiras but kleSas al well. The word klesa, or 'cause of affliction' (derived from the root klis-'to torment', 'to pain') in its conventional usage is a synonim of duJ:zkha, suffering, being not merely an antonym of sukha (pleasure), but coextensive with that opposing salvational pursuit and leading to safJ1Siira. In YS 11.3. Pataiijali distinguishes five types of klesas that provide the dynamic framework of the phenomenal consciousness. His next aphorism states that the karmiisaya is klesamulaJ:z and avidyii (ignorance) begets mainly four other kinds of klesas -asmitii (egoism), riiga (attachment), dve~a (aversion) and abhiniveSa (will-to-live), of these avidyii being the source of all. 22 As the basic emotional and motivational forces, klesas lie at the root of all misery and urge man to burst into activity, to feel, to think, to want. A more precise explanation of klesas is offered by G. M. Koelman: Man is born with certain psychological habits, congenital psychical passions that bind him to cosmic conditions. They blind him, prevent him from discovering what his genuine Self is, make him attached to cosmic life and its allurements, afflict his existence with an endless chain of woes, enmesh him more and more in the net of conditioned existence, and hinder his liberation. Each akli~!ii state produces its own potency or sa1Jlskiira, and with the frequency of the states their sa1Jlskiiras are stregthened, which in due course by habitation (abhyiisa) suppress the kli~!ii ones. However, this replacement of kli~!iiv.rttis by akli~!iil'rttis should not be understood as a process of repression where the 'higher' modes of thought are made to suprpress the 'lower' ones. In the Yoga system, the practice starts with the realization that there are these subliminal impressions which are always acting as a source of danger, especially when repressed. This realization helps in counteracting sa1Jlskiiras while replacing all such tendencies by less harmful (in soteriological sense) ideas and finally burning them out. Acctually, Yoga is nothing else but a progressive restraint of the forming of sa1JlSkiiras.
Vyiisa, in his commentary to YS IT.4, states that avidyii does not mean something negative like 'absence of knowledge, but it is something positive, some fundamental notions antagonistic to true knowledgevidyiiparftam jiiiiniintaram' 24. Therefore, the so-called normal human situation is described in Yoga tradition as a specific state of consciousness: a cognitive misconstruction of reality (mithyajiiiina) and misidentification with material existence as one's true identity. This is the source of all human difficulties and dissatisfaction (duJ:zkha). And in fact, we may say that avidyii is a subtle stream of bhrama sa1JlSkiira, or impressions of false cognitions and notions aquired either in this life or in the pervious incarnations. Thus, the practical goal of Yoga is to strenghten those akli~!iivrttis and prajiiiisa1JlSkiiras that are destructive to ne science, the matrix of all kleSas.
Again, sa1Jlskiiras exist even if they are not manifesting their effects during the waking state of consciousness. They function predominantly in the images of dreams (svapna), illusions (bhriinti) and hallucinations (vibhriinti). Dream is regarded as smrtivibhrama, or as 'confused recollections', and illusion is called smrtirupa, or 'resembling recollection', being produced by sa1Jlskiiras in the absence of actual objects of perception. The dream-images are modifications of buddhi through sa1Jlskiiras and defects (do~as) of senses. Therefore, experience in dream is erroneous recollection. Vyiisa also states in his Yoga Sutra Bhii~ya that in dream, recollections are imaginary objects 25 . Viicaspati Misra remarks in his commentary on the Vyiisa Bhii~a that "it is not actual recollection but erroneous recollection, [ ... ] it is called recollection because of appearing as recollection (smrtyiibhiisatayii)", because he defines true recollection as cognition produced by impressions only (sa1Jlskiiramiitrajam hi vijiiiinam smrtiJ:z).26 The siitra IV.9 explains the role of viisaniis in bridging the gap between two existences: "By reason of the correspondence between memory and sa1Jlskiiras, there is uninterrupted, causal relation [of viisaniis], even when they are separated by birth, space and time.,,27 The difference between sa1Jlskiiras and memory (smrti) is that while the former is the 24 Vyasa Bh~ya, 11.5. 25 svapne bhavitasmartavya -Vyasa Bha~ya 1.11. 26 Tattva Vaisiiradi 1.11. 27 jiitideiakiilavyavahitaniimapyiinantaryaT]1 smrtisaT]1skiirayor ekarilpatvat -YS IV.9. unrecognized subconscious content and lies hidden in the latent state, the latter is the manifested memory, the former being inferred from the latter. The Vyiisabhii~a explains: The I'iisana is like the memory (smrti) and so there can be memory from the sa1JlSkiiras of past lives even though separated by birth, by space and by time. From these memories there are again the sa1JlSkaras, and the memories are revived by manifestation of the karmiiSayas. Thus even though separated by birth, by space and by time, it is proved that there is an uninterrupted sequential relation between [many lives], because the relationshipof cause and effect is not broken.28 As Vacaspati Misra has put it briefly, 'the power which generates mental potencies is inferred by memory' (YV m.lS). Consciousness is energized by the network of viisaniis which set up a certain tension, thereby causing the mind to incline towards sensory experience leading to the formation of sa,!,skiiras. It means that the sa'!'skiiras are revived and under suitable associations and conditions reproduced as memory (smrti).
Bhoja remarks that in dreams, experiences of the waking state appear again like perceptual cognitions (RM 111). Thus, they are but recollections through sa,!,skiiras. In the similar manner, the Vedantin Sailkara regards dreams as recollections: in the mind of a sleeping person only impressions persist, which produce dreams. 29 Being produced by sa,!,skiiras, some dreams are held to be indicative of the past or present mental character or predisposition. There are various kinds of dreams produced by different kinds of stimuli, though in every case subconscious sa,!,skiiras produce images, and the unconscious adr~!a is at the root as a determining factor causing a particular dream yielding pleasure or pain. 3o That in the state of dreams the mind remains with the sa,!,skiiras acquired in the waking state is also described in BrhadiiraT}yaka Upani~ad (4.3.9). The same is said by Madhusudana SarasvatI: dream is the experience of objects through impressions in the mind while the sense organs are inactive. 31 In Caraka sa,!,hitii, the most authoritative Indian medical treatise, we find a description of the seven different sorts of dreams, namely: dr~!a, sruta, anubhiita, priirthita, kalpita, bhiivika, and do~aja. 32 Priirthita dreams are those which come as fulfilment of unfulfilled desires; kalpita dreams are produced by the impressions of intense thinking or imagining in the waking state; bhiivika dreams indicate future events, and do~aja dreams come due to some disorder in the functioning of the three bioorganical humours (viiyu, pitta, kapha Curuku saf!lhitii, first three (dr~!a, sruta, anubhUta) are the dreams produced by the impressions acquired through different sense organs.
Besides, according to the view of grammarian philosopher Bhartrhari, the main spring of all our behaviour (sarvavyavahiirayoniM is pratibhii (supersensuous apperception, 'flash of light') which is at the root of our activities and which spontaneously determines the instincts and behaviour of all creatures. But, being another name for priirabdha, which is nothing but a bundle of adr~!a and saf!lSkiira determining and guiding the present birth and life, it accords with the conception of avidyii in the Sarpkhya and Pataiijala schools. 33 The conception of sa1Jlskiiras and viisaniis has been evolved in response to different kinds of questions having the purpose of explaining certain occurrences during the process of radical introversion and especially during the terminal states of enstasy (samiidhi). The ultimate stage of citta is nirudha in which all functions and modifications of mind are completely suspended, and the mind remains in complete repose only as impressions have finally left (sa1JlskiiramiitraSe~a). The mind of the aspirant of kaivalya state becomes disgusted with the supreme realisation of the distinction of Self from non-self (viveka khyiitz) and discards it. Then citta remains only in the form of some sa1Jlskiiras, and that is called nirbfja samiidhi, because of having no object. It is called asamprajiiiita samiidhi as well, for nothing is cognized in this state. Though there is no cognition in this state, there must be sa1Jlskiiras which may be inferred from the fact of rising or waking again from such samiidhi. But in the state of final emancipation or spiritual freedom (kaivalya), the mind (citta) dissolves with all impressions in its substratum, pradhiina. This is the highest state called sa1Jlskiira-nirodha, when the very propensity of mind to form fluctuations is brought under complete control.
Hovewer, as lan Whicher has rightly remarked, then a yogin does not become a 'mindless' being (as it is still often regarded in the West), rather he is left with a transformed, fully satisfied mind which due to its transparent nature can function in the form of akli~!iivrttis.34 Vijiiana Bhik~u argues that while the cognitive, samprajiiiita samiidhi abolishes all the karma except the priirabdha karma (the karma that is already ripening in the present), the enstatic, asamprajiiiita samiidhi has the potency to destroy even the priirabdha karma including all the previous sa1Jlskiiras. 35 The karma of such a yogin is said to be neither white (asuklam) nor black (ak!~!Wm) nor mixed (YS IV.7). There is a complete exhaustion or burning up of kannic residue, i. e. afflictions (kle.sas) in the form of latent impressions (sa'!lskiiras). The process of making the klesas barren is explained by Vacaspati Misra in the following way: Meditation (prasa'!lkhyana) makes the attenuated kldas barren (vandhya), which are like burned seeds (dagdablja) of rice (kalama). If the kldas are not attenuated discrimination between sattva and puru~a cannot even arise, and much less make the klesas barren. But when the kldas are thinned out they can be made barren. (TV 112) According to both Vyasa (YB IV.30) and Vijfiana Bhik~u (YV IV.30), the one in whom this high state of purification takes place is designited a jrvanmukta -one who is liberated while still being embodied. The modem commentator Swami Hariharananda Aral)ya also argues that liberated yogins who embark on their role as a teacher 'for the benefit of all' do so through their ability to create or construct a new individualized mind (nirmiiTJa citta) which can be 'dissolved at will' and does not collect more sa'!lskiiras of ignorance. 36 The exceptional ability of spiritually advanced yogins to have recollections from past lives also depends, according to Patafijali, on the subconscious mental properties. Vyasa gives a list of imperceptible attributes or modifications of mind (aparidr~!adttadharma) which may be considered as the preconscious attributes and propellers of mind: mutation (pariTJiima), effort (che~!ii), suppression (nirodha), power (sakti), vitality Ufvana), characterization (dharma). If a yogin who has developed his mental power beyond the reach of ordinary person concentrates (sii~iitkaraTJiit) on his karmiiSaya and jniiniiSaya, he can recollect his previous birth. Though being unconscious or subconscious attributes of mind, they can be perceived through sa'!lyama, which produces the memory of previous embodiments of a yogin. 37 Similarly, by the direct perception of the subliminal impressions of others there comes knowledge of the previous births of others.
In the schools of Nyaya and Vai §e~ika, sa'!lskiiras are regarded not only as mental tendencies, but also as dispositions of material substances. Kal)ada in his Vai~esika sutra defines: 'Avidyii is produced from the defect of pervious knowledge impressions (saf!lSkiira); it is wrong cognition (viparyaya) ' .38 All Indian schools, being believers in immortality of the soul and rebirth, regard previous actions and cognitions as the maker of the storehouse of adr~!a and sa'!lskiiras. When a person dies, his unactivated karmiiSayas, including his viisaniis, gather together within that individual's dtta and immediately pass on to a new body (a foetus) and 'fill in' (iipiira) it with ciUa appropriate to the kind of the body. Though this storehouse of citta may seem to come by heredity, this heredity again is determined to a great extent by previous actions 36  (karma!lf), knowledge (vidyii) and the past cognitions (pun J aprajiiii).39 The retributive consequences of karmic actions are transmitted through a person's inner dispositions. It means that sarrzskiiras and l'iisaniis form an important part of the karmic retribution and guarantee that every person gets a just reward or punishment for hislher morally qualified deeds.40 All present drives come from these subconscious imprints and dispositions formed in previous lives and activated in a new birth. These dispositions are used as explanations of the gifts and extraordinary abilities of young children as well.
Besides, in Plitaiijala school saf!lskiiras and viisaniis have an important role in bringing about the continuity in rebirth and forming the continuity between lives. However, according to Hindu philosophy the rebirth relationship and the personal identity are not to be reduced to a mere sarrzskiiric continuity or dharmic continuity as in Buddhism. The personal identity in Hindu traditions is ultimaltely guaranteed by the existence of the permanent, spiritual Self (puru~a, iitman). Even what we call primal animal instincts, like self-preser-vation, procreation, etc., and our involuntary activities like respiration, blood circulation, etc., have also their source in the same storehouse. We have, then, in the Yoga account a rather carefully worked out theory concerning the mechanics of karma and rebirth, 'which is made available to the non-philosopher through appeal to the model of rice-farming ,41.
Some scholars are inclined to see in the concept of saf!lskiira a mirror image of the ancient Buddhist notion of saJikhiira signifying the conative factors in the series of conditioned origination (pa!iccasamuppiida), namely, its second link (nidiina). The earlier Upani~ads do not mention it; neither Piili pi!akas seem to mention it. 42 There may be involved some direct borrowings from Early Buddhism, where the interpretation of saf!lskiiras as dispositions is rather obvious. In the context of Theravada Budhism, P. D. Premasiri writes: 'SaJikhiiras are the dispositional tendencies that have become relatively stable features of an individual's 39 For instance, see Brhmliira1}yaka Upani~ad, 4.4.2. Representing the point of view of Advaita Vedanta, in his commentary Sarikara says, "As a matter of fact, everybody has at that moment [of death] a consciousness which consists of viisaniis in the form of particular modifications of his mind (regarding the next life) that are induced by his past work." The Brhmliira1}yaka Upani~ad with the Commentary of Sarikariiciirya, translated by Swami Madhavananda, Calcutta, Advaita Ashrama, 1988, 491. 40 However, according to Leo Naraeho, it is interesting to view the retributive system of karma as an absolutely unconscious system, but this leads to a philosophically problematic interpretation of the Indian conception of karma. See Leo Naraeho, "Unconsciouss forces: A survey of some concepts in Indian philosophy", Asian Philosophy 14,2 (July 2004): 117-129. 41 K. H. Potter, 'The karma theory and its Interpretation in some Indian philosophical systems', in Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Tradition, ed. W. D. O'Flaherty, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983,248. 42 According to S. Dasgupta, Abhidhiinappadfpkii of Moggallana mentions it, and the term also occurs in the Muktika Upani~ad (S. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, vols. I-V, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988, (first edition Cambridge, 1922, I: 263. 1. Filliozat is also of the opinion that the theory of sUf!lskiiras first appears in Buddhism and only subsequently in the texts of Yoga. See Jean Filliozat, Religions. Philosophy. Yoga: A SelectiofL of Articles. transl. Maurice Shukla, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991, 309. personality. They can also be described as character traits of an individual that have become established as a result of repeated types of bodily, verbal and mental functions' .43 * * * A brief examination of the principal concepts in the main texts of Patafijali's Yoga school related to the subconscious brings us to certain conclusions. With some generalizations we may say that various concepts used to describe the broad field of unconscious mental activity, and notably sa'!lskiiras and viisaniis, are substantial for the psychological and philosophical explanation of the nature of human consciousness and individual existence in Indian tradition. It is possible to distinguish seven main features, or functions, of these concepts in Yoga tradition. First, it describes a vast, inexhaustible storehouse or pool of unconscious stimuli, which power the machinery of consciousness; the storehouse where the primal animal instincts such as self-preservation, procreation, etc., and our involuntary activities like respiration, blood circulation, etc., have their source. Second, sa'!lskiiras and viisaniis are used to explain the origin of the memories (smrti) , dreams (svapna), illusions (bhriinti) and hallucinations (vibhriinti). Third, these dispositions are used as explanations of the gifts and extraordinary abilities of young children due to the revival of past experience. Fourth, both concepts form an essential part of the karmic retribution and explain the appropriate and un appropriate karmic experience of a new birth. Fifth, saf!lSkiiras and viisaniis, according to Patafijali, play an important role in bringing about the continuity in rebirth and forming continuity between lives. Sixth, the exceptional ability of spiritually advanced yogins to have recollections from their past lives also depends on the unconscious mental properties. Eventually, it seems that the conception of sa'!lskiiras and viisaniis has been developed for the purpose of explaining certain occurrences during the process of the final emancipation or spiritual freedom (kaivalya), and especially during the terminal soteriological state of samiidhi.
Speaking in psychological terms, human existence from the Yoga point of view is a continuous actualization of the subconscious content through everyday experiences and conditioning of the specific character of each individual in accordance with his/her heredity and his/her karmic situation. Long before psychoanalysis, Yoga showed the importance of the role played by the subconscious. Because of the prominent practical orientation of the psychological aspects of Yoga, it has occasionally been compared to Western psychoanalytical theories and procedures, but the comparison is only conditionally valid. 44 Nevertheless, similar concepts exist in Indian classical psychology and have a great psychological significance. There is nothing in Indian psychology which might be equated with the Freudian or Jungian concept of unconscious and preconscious with all their specific characteristics. 45 C. G. Jung describes the so-called collective unconscious as follows: This psychic life is the mind of our ancient ancestors, the way in which they thought and felt, the way in which they conceived of life and the world, of gods and human beings. The existence of these historical layers is presumably the source of the belief in reincarnation and in memories of past lives. As the body is a sort of museum of its phylogenetic history, so is the mind. [ ... ] It is only the individual ego-consciousness that has for ever a new beginning and an early end. But the unconscious psyche is not only immensely old, it is also able to grow unceasingly into an equally remote future,46.
To Jung, what influences man's conscious and unconscious mind is not so much his own past as the collective history of the whole human race, whereas according to Yoga, the subconscious is primarily made up of one's own past lives and the resultant of individual karma. A second difference is that unlike psychoanalysis, Yoga psychology does not see in the unconscious merely a manifestation of libido and believes that sa1Jlskiiras can be brought to the level of awareness, mastered or even conquered through employing intense psychomental techniques and Yoga disciplines. For Jung, however, such state is both a psychological and philosophical impossibility. 'Whereas for yoga the sa1Jlskiiras are obstructions of reality which must be removed for the achievement of knowledge, for Jung it is through the shaping of the materials of consciousness by the archetypal 'memories' that knowledge of reality results' 47. The most important point of similarity is that, according to both Yoga and psychoanalysis, this subconscious is taken to be the determining factor in conscious life. Thus, we see that belonging to the core of the Indian psychological system, the conception of sa1Jlskiiras and viisaniis in a way foreshadows the modem notion of the subconscious / unconsciouss / preconscious.