A Look at the Indo-European Arch Rhythmics (a comparative analysis of the musical rhythmics of Hindus, Arabs, Greeks, and Balts)

This article analyzes and compares the rhythmics of Indian, Arabian, ancient Greek, ethnic Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian music. The stress is laid on the similarity common to classical Indian, ancient Greek, and ethnic Lithuanian music. The author poses the question: can the durational rhythmics, which is common among the mentioned cultures, be called "Indo-European Arch rhythmics'; or is it a phenomenon of a wider scale, typical in the music of other cultures, too. The research is based on typological and comparative methods. The phenomenon of musical rhythmics is analyzed following the quantitative (duration, quantity) view. The foundation of quantitative (durational) rhythmics is sought for in languages as wellin the fluctuation of long and short syllables.

The understanding of musical rhythm is based on durational and dynamic relations of music sounds. These two points, psychologically important aspects for understanding, become the main criterion for classifying rhythmic phenomenon met in the music of different time periods and different cultures. The phenomenon of rhythmics is divided into quantitative (durational) and qualitative (stressed), which is done based on the domination of a certain aspect. 1 The quantitative (durational) rhythmics is genetically related to language and originates most of the time from the fluctuation of long and short syllables, whereas the qualitative (stressed) rhythm obviously relates to the function of movement. The principal difference and relation of durational and stressed rhythmics with word and movement was already noticed by the members of the ancient world. The Roman orator, Fabius Quintilius, in his work dedicated to his art of rhetoric, "Institutio Oratoria" (IX, IV), states: "Metrum in verbis modo, rhytmus etiam in corporis motu est" ("The metre is only in words, but the rhythm -in body movement "j. 2 Upon analyzing old Lithuanian folk songs, it can be noted that the rhythmics (especially calendar and work songs) is quite different compared to the rhythmics of classical European and pop music. The melodies of old Lithuanian folk songs are very hard to group into beats. Examples of the mixed (5/8, 7/8) and changing metre can be found here. Obviously, the rhythmics of the oldest set of songs is controlled by a different consistency than we are used to. The music is more similar to ancient Greek music and Indian Vedic singing, but not to the rhythm of classical European (17 th -20 th c. A.D.) or pop music. Despite the fact the roots of European classical music (1 ih_20th c. A.D.) come from ancient Greek music, the rhythmics of European professional music had taken a different direction. A long, lasting period of rhythmic uncertainty (Gregorian chant, 4th_12th c. A.D.) was followed by the period of modal rhythmics (early polyphonic, 12th_13 th c. A.D.). The modal rhythmics gradually changed to the graduate rhythmics (13 th _16 th c. A.D.). In 1ih c. A.D. a meaningful turning point took place: durational relations were changed by stressed ones. At the same time the system of note writing was formed and the instrumental music of the baroque era flourished. Meanwhile, the old sets of European ethnic music kept the features of the old quantitative rhythmics. This can be said not only about North European (Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian) but also about Southeast European (Croatian, Albanian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, and Greek) ethnic music. Jadvyga Ciurlionyte (1899Ciurlionyte ( -1992, a Lithuanian ethnomusicologist, once said that the songs of the Lithuanian rye harvesting sound similar to the chant of Indian Vedas. The similarity of the sound is determined by the affinity of Lithuanian songs, ancient Greek music, and the chant of Indian Vedas. All three examples belong to the type of durational (quantitative) rhythmics. Is this similarity accidental or it is caused by genetic relationship? In order to answer the question we will analyze several significant examples of quantitative rhythms: the chant of Indian Vedas, which influenced the development of Indian classical music, the rhythms of Arabian classical music (fqa 'at), the rhythmics of ancient Greek, the rhythmics of Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian ethnic music.

The rhythmics of Indian music
Sanskrit poetry, together with the singing of the Vedic hymns, which is one of the oldest phenomenon of Indian musical culture known today, is reputed to be one of the strongest examples of quantitative versification. Thanks to oral transmission and strict traditions of teaching, the singing of the several millenniums old Vedas reached our times unchanged. The oldest Veda, f!.gveda, is chanted in three tunes. One of them is tonic (svarita), the second one enriches the singing with the tone from above (udatta), and the third one enriches it with the tone from the bottom (anudatta). This way of singing, described in the grammar of Panini 3 in the 4th century B.C., had, most likely, existed even earlier. The duration of the Rig-Veda's musical sounds is dependent on the phonetic consistency of the Sanskrit language and based on the natural rhythm of words. 4 The long vowels and diphthongs are sung in long notes and the short ones -in short notes. Quantitative relationship of Sanskrit syllables is more important than dynamic ones. Short and long vowels carry a meaningful function in the Sanskrit language, which makes it very close to the old Greek and Lithuanian languages. The sound of the Vedic hymns is reminiscent of ancient Greek music as well as Lithuanian songs of rye harvesting. Below is an example from Taitiria Upanishads (taittirfyopani$ad): The biggest part of Vedic literature was poetic and it was chanted strictly following the rules of poetic metrics of Sanskrit and taking into consideration the related length of vowels. The study of Sanskrit poetic metrics has a long tradition as an important branch of Vedic learning. The text that deals with the rules of metrics is called the Chandasiistra and is one of the six VediifJ-gas or limbs of the Vedas. The first book known to us as the one that analyzes the mentioned rules is thought to have been written ca. 150 B.c. by Pingalachiirya. 5 The principles and the classification of the composition of chanda are found in the old Hindu texts. According to the "History of Indian Literature," the Siinkhyiiyana Srautasutra, contains several chapters on prosody. Other Sanskrit texts dealing with prosody or metrics mentioned are IJ..gveda Priitisiikhya, Katyayana's AnukramalJis and Nidiina Sutra related to Siimaveda. 6 Apart from these, chapters 14, 15 and 32 of Bharata's Natyasiistra and chapters 328-335 of AgnipiiriilJa also deal with metrics. During hundreds of years many famous treatises describing the consistency of versification were written. Srtabodha of Kalidasa (2 nd cent.
A.D.), and Vrttaratniikara of Kedara Bhatta (15 th cent. A.D.) are important among the later works on metrics. 7 The rhythmic foundation of Sanskrit prosody is made of stable metric cycles called chanda. Every chanda is determined by the arrangement of short and long syllables (skr. a~ara). Short syllables are the ones that end with a short vowel, long ones are the ones ending with a long vowel or a diphthong and also those which go before the double consonants. The short syllables are called laghu and the long ones -guru. A large number of possible pennutations and combinations has given rise to a large variety of chandas. This means that Vedic metres are not of a qualitative (dynamic) nature but of quantitative (durational) one. s The unit of metric quantity is called miitrii and it matches mora used in European poetry (in ancient Greek Chronos protos). The long syllable (guru) is two miitriis long and the short syllable (laghu) lasts only one. There are two kinds of Sanskrit metres. The first ones are syllabic metres vrtta, that have a defined number of syllables. The second ones are metric metres jiiti and they have a defined number of miitriis. Those metres that have a particular number of syllables are divided into equal (samvrtta), half equal (ardhasamvrtta), and unequal (vi$amavrtta) metres. Every line of syllabic metres is divided into groups of three syllables (three-syllabic feet (gatza», which differ from one another in the order in which the durations are put. There are only eight three-syllabic feet; however, two monosyllabic feet are used in addition to the three-syllabic 9 : Hindu people produced a spectacular artificial word yamiitiiriijabhiinasalagiim, which became a tool helping to classify and remember the names of the feet. Every first syllable of the three-syllabic feet indicates the name of certain feet: yamiitii U --, miitiirii ---, tiiriija --U, riijabii -U -,jabhiina u -U, bhiinasa -U U, nasala U U u, salagiim U U _. 10 When metric feet (gana's) are connected according to a certain order, they make complicated quantitative metres called challdas. There are seven main chandas that are most often used in the Vedas, the oldest record of Hindu literature: giiyatrf (24 syllables), u$rzik (28 syllables), anu$.tup (32 syllables), brhatf (36 syllables), pan.ktil} (40 syllables), tri$.tup (44 syllables), and jagatf (48 syllables). Apart from these, we also get references about seven more metres used in the Vedas. They are: Atijagatf (52 syllables), Sakvarf (56 syllables), Atisakvarf (60 syllables), A~!ih (64 syllables), Atya~!ih (68 syllables), Dhrtih (72 syllables), Atishrtih (76 syllables). Maharishi Valmikis has used thirteen different chandas in RiimiiyafJa, a mythological epic poem. However, Maharishi Vyasa has used even eighteen different 8Amold E. Vemon, a famous researcher of the development ofVedic metres, stresses the durational nature ofVedic metres. According to the scholar, "The metrical laws of the Rigveda recognize only the distinction between long and short vowel or a short vowel followed by two consonants". Cf. Amold E. Vemon, Vedic Metre in this Historical Development, Dehli, Varansasi, Patna: Motilal Banarsidass, 1967, p.
Chandas consisting of 12 syllables: uuuuuu---u--u-- To express or describe any experience, feeling, emotion or action, the choice of the appropriate chanda is very important, because each metre has its own movement and mood. Sometimes the name of the chanda gives a clue to its movement. For example, Mandiikriintii means 'slow moving'. Most of syllables are long and heavy, which is ideal for expressing pathos. Similarly, Tvarigati means 'fast gait' and contains many short syllables. At the time, the names of the chandas are derived from nature. For example, Bhujaiigaprayata is named after the serpent and its rhythm has a zigzag movement. Twelve syllables of four Ya groups form each piida of this metre. So, here the 1 st, 4th, 7 th and 10 th syllables of each piida are short and the others are long: These are some interesting insights into Sanskrit metres but there is no easy and fast rule to be followed. The same chanda is often used to depict different moods, and different chandas can express the same mood. Everything depends on the inspiration and the mastery of the poet. 12 The hindus derive their classical music from Siimavedas; 13 which is the sung version of Rgveda. 14 Therefore, it is obvious that the rules ofVedic chant were influencing the formation of the rhythms of Indian classical music. According to the musicologist Alain Danielou, "musical theory and the theory of language in India were considered by the Sanskrit theorists as two parallel branches of one general science of sound. Both have often been codified by the same writers. The names of Vashishtha, Yajnavalkya, Niirada, Kashyapa, Piinin i, are mentioned among the early musicologist-grammarians.,,/5 There is an obvious relationship between the quantitative nature of the old cycles of rhythm (tiila) and phonetics of Sanskrit. The fluctuation of different duration of tala constructions is as important as the number or the grouping of metric parts (miitrii). The organization of rhythm according to the different sound durations can be connected with the Sanskrit language and can be derived from the rhythm of Vedic chant, where the highlighting of long and short syllables is very important. Indian musicians acknowledge the fact that the phonetic consistencies in the Sanskrit language made an influence on the rhythm of Indian classical music. According to Ravi Shankar, "one can find the origins of Indian rhythms in the language, poetry, and literature of the country. Even until modern times, students learned their lessons by memorizing them in verse. The Sanskrit language and the numerous dialects derived from it classify syllables according to their temporal duration. The rules of versification are highly complex and very strict, and the time length (as opposed to, say, accent in the West) is ofprime importance inpoetry., ,16 It is not difficult to reconstruct the development of Indian rhythmics, because there are many musicological texts left, which analyze the questions of rhythmics. 17 Gftiilamkara l8 , known as the oldest Indian musicological treatise, is assigned to Bharata, the legendary wise man. Alongside the questions of other musicological aesthetics and theories, in his writing the author analyzes the problems of the rhythm. After becoming familiar with the problems of the rhythm in the treatise, it becomes obvious that most attention is paid to duration of sounds. In Gftiilamkara the rhythm is examined according to the quantitative aspect. 19 The eleventh chapter of Gftiilamkara talks about the definition of the rhythm called yati. 20 Three cycles of the rhythm are proposed (accordingly of 4, 3, 5 parts of metric duration), which are described using the terms of poetic rhythmics (Gopuchha. Vajrasara ir Mahabhairava).21 In the 13 th century A.D. the united musical tradition of India split into two, completely independent, musical systems -Hindusthiinf and KarQii(aka.
22 It had its reflection in the rhythmics, too.
Purandaradasa (1484-1564)23, the patriarch of classical music in Southern India, wrote about the system of seven tala (suladi saptatiila), which had formed in the music of South India (KarQii (aka). Today, about three fourths of the modem music of KarQii(aka is based on this rhythm system. Talas of KarQii(aka are based on different durations, for example Eka (-),  (5), misra laghu (7) and sahkfrna laghu. Changing the proportion of long (lahgu) and short (guru) durations (3:2,4:2,5:2, 7:2, 9:2), it is possible to make even 35 different tiilas. 24 However, in the music of North India (Hindusthiint) tiilas are made by grouping a certain number of miitras. The rhythmics of South and North India cannot be imagined without a particular mnemonic system, which is based on certain syllables called bol. The syllables have to be learned by heart as then it becomes easier for the percussionist to 19 Chapter eight of the treatise is called "The Definition of Matra". It talks about the duration of musical sounds (svara) using poetic comparisons. Musical sounds are divided into short, long, and extended, they are also compared with the sounds of different birds (crane, cuckoo), their suitability for different musical characters and emotions is being discussed; also see: 6xapaTa, «rHTanaHKapa», MY3blKaJlbHaR 3cmemUKa cmpaH BocmoKa, pe.ll. B. O. llieCTaKoB, MocKBa, 1967, p. 93; also see: Bharata, Le Gftalamkara. L 'ouvrage origin ale de Bharata sur la musique, ed. par A. Danielou et N. R. Bhatt, Pondicherry, 1959. 20 In later treatises the concept of yati defines the movement, the character of the movement, however, in Gftalamkara it means the rhythm. Hindu tiila is one of the most delicate and most complicated of all classical rhythmic systems. Despite its external similarity to the measures used in European music, it is obvious that tiilas have a quantitative nature. This can be proved by analyzing old musicological Indian treatises (eg. Niityasiistra 26 ) and the historical development of Tala. The fluctuation of sound duration is as important in the organization of Tala as the number of miitras. The importance of fluctuation of durations, as the principle of organization of the rhythmics, goes back to the times of R-gveda and is connected with the peculiarities of the Sanskrit language (there are some analogies with poetic rhythm of old Greek, with the modal rhythm of European Middle Ages, with the old Lithuanian calendar and work songs, also a few songs related to children). The existence of the system of syllabic mnemonics (boP? ir theka 28 ) also testifies to the relationship with the language. Indian music varied strongly through history, causing the variation in rhythmics as well. It was affected by historical circumstances and by the influence of the neighboring cultures. KarfJqtaka preserved a larger amount of features of the old Indian music; hindusthiinf was influenced quite a bit by Arab and Persian music. The cycles of the rhythm of the North Indian classical music are more similar to our measures. Their quantitative nature and the relationship with the old Sanskrit language is not that obvious any more, however, it is not disappearing. According to a musicologist, Alain Danielou, who is one of the most famous researchers ofIndian classical music, "The structure of Indian music is very similar to the language. The old grammarians and theoreticians of Sanskrit believed that the separation of verbal language. gestures. and music was the phenomenon. which developed only later and was never fully implemented. In fact the verbal and musical languages are the two aspects of the same phenomenon of communication. which have common psychological. physiological. and semantic foundations. The fact that more abstract conventional structures developed in particular musical systems. can hide this foundational unity. however. it would be only a show ... 29 25 Alap. A Discovery of Indian Clasical Music, Pondicherry, 1995, p. 141-144. 26 The reconstruction of the old talas, described in Niityasiistra, was proposed by Emmie te Nijenhuis; see.: Emmie te Nijenhuis, "Die Musik im altindischen Theater nach dem Natyasastra", Waiter Kaufmann, Altindien. Leipzig, 1981, p. 194-195;t.

Arabian, Persian, and Turkish rhythmics
The music of the Near and Middle East (Arabian, Persian, and Turkish) also has many examples of quantitative rhythmics. The science of rhythmics of the Eastern people has very old and profound traditions. Questions concerning classical versification and rhythmics were already thoroughly ventilated in the first Arabian, Persian, and Middle Asian musicological treatises. Arabian philosophers, the authors of treatises written in the Middle Ages,30 wanted to find and motivate the consistency of musical rhythm, which was determined by the norms of classical Arabic versification ( 'aru4). Arabian system of classical versification was thought to be the Semitic example of quantitative rhythmics, which influenced not only the classical Arabian but the rhythmics of Persian and. Turkish music as well. Arabian versification is based on the rules used for long and short vowels. It is interesting that throughout the time, Turkic languages speaking nations (Turks, Azerbaijanis, and Uzbeks) applied classical Arabic versification ('arU4) to their own, despite the fact that syllabic versification used to be more common to the old folk poetry of those people rather than the metric one.
After analyzing the typical rhythm model of Arabian classical music (arab. fqa', plural fqa 'at), it becomes clear that they have a double nature -durational (quantitative) and dynamic (qualitative) at the same time. The quantitative side of the structure is created by the constant change of the short and long rhythmic values. However, the qualitative side is created with the help of dynamic differentiation of rhythmic units; the fluctuation of the strong ("dum") and the weak ("tak") sounds, which is stressed much more by timbre than by stress. 31 Still, quantitative, i.e. durational, aspect of the rhythm is more important. If we talk about the rhythmics of Arabian, Iranian (Persian), and Turkish classical music, it is very varied and enriched with ornaments. We can find not only the simple metres consisting of two or three parts, often with unexpectedly changing aspects, but also the compound metres -5/8, 7/8, 8/16, 11116, 12/16 and etc. 32 The foundation of the rhythmic cycles used in Persian classical music are the short rhythm formulas, made from long and short sounds. The cycles of the rhythm have their names. Besides, in order to learn them, the syllabic nmemonics taken from Arabians (Safi ai-Din) ("tan, ta-nan, ta-na-nan"),33 which reflect the relative value of sound durations and the inner structure of rhythm cycles, is being used. Following Safi ai-DIn, theorists normally defined rhythmic cycles in two ways. One was to divide a cycle into the same number of segments as there are time units and add symbols indicating those normally sounded. The other, parallel to the standard presentation of poetic metres in prosody, was to employ the syllables ta, na (each equivalent to one time unit) and tan, nan (each equivalent to two time units) and to divide the rhythmic cycle into feet of two to four time units, ta and tan always being initial in a foot, na medial and nan final. A representation such as tanan tanan tananan tan tananan suggests, accordingly, an internal 3+ 3+4+ 2+4 division and an associated distribution of percussions, with the initial time unit in a foot always sounded, the final one almost always not and the sounding of any medial ones generally optional. This means that the fluctuation of different musical durations and the relationship with poetic metrics has a significant meaning to the structure of the rhythm of Arabian, Persian, and Turkish classical music.
The rhythmics of ancient Greek music Ancient Greek music is another emphatic example of quantitative rhythmics. According to the famous Greek researcher of music, Thrasybulos Georgiades, Greek rhythmics is very simple and easy to understand. Its foundation is based on the fluctuation of the short and long rhythmic values. 34 The scholar emphasizes the relationship between the old Greek language, music, poetry, and dance. He states that the beginning of rhythm, music, poetry, and dance come from nowhere else but from the old Greek language. During the comparison of the rhythmics of ancient Greek and Western New Age music, Thrasybulos Georgiades indicates one fundamental difference. The first one has a typical quantitative character and the second one -a dynamic character. 35 This difference is noticed by the researchers from other countries as well. German musicologists, Klauso Mehnerio and Margret Hager, state that it is impossible to compare the rhythmics of Greek and German languages, because the rhythm of the German language is based on the fluctuations of stressed and not stressed syllables, whereas the rhythm of the Greek language is based on the fluctuations of long and short syllables. 36 Juozas Girdzijauskas, a researcher of Lithuanian versification, states that "the least doubts and disagreements are caused dealing with the separation of antique versification into an independent. quantitative system of poetical language. in which the consistently fluctuating long and short syllables perform the function of the metre. ,,37 The rhythm of ancient Greek music was based on the old Greek language and was very closely related with poetry and antique versification, which comparing to modem European versification (tonic and syllabic-tonic), was based not on dynamic but on quantitative relations. The influence of the rhythm of the Greek language to the music is seen very obviously in the melodic of this Sapho hymn (YTj£VUtOC; 'tT)C; LU1[q>OU~): In the New Ages (1 ih_20th c.), in European music, which is based on the nature accented by metric rhythmics, lots of different sound durations and their relations are used (besides, they are supported with the structures of the measure). In the meantime, the rhythmics of ancient Greek music is based on the sounds of double duration -short (u) and long (-). The proportion of durations is 1 :2. Sometimes more complicated rhythmic proportions are used, such as hemiola (Gr. TJI.UOA.tO<;) or sesquialtera (Lat.) 2:3, epitrite or sesquitertia (Lat) 3:4, and etc. 38 The shortest value is not divided and serves as a starting point of duration. 39 In ancient Greek music, the function of the shortest time range and of the primordial cell of musical time is performed by Chronos pr6tos (Gr. xpovo<; 1tpro'to<;, primal time). Two short values (uu) are equal to one long value (-). Different musical structures are made from long and short values, which are called poetic feet. By joining several ordinary feet, compound feetdipodia, tripodia, and tetra podia (tetrametron) -are made. 40 The antique quantitative rhythm creates a possibility to make any combinations with long and short sounds. Sounds, besides, are not dependent on stressed relations.
There are certain connections between the additive rhythmics of Southeastern European countries and the durational rhythmics of ancient Greek. The additive rhythmics with its nature is very close to the quantitative rhythmics of ancient Greek music. Therefore, the additive rhythmics can also be found in the Balkans (Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Albania) and in Asia Minor. Some musicologists state that the additive rhythmics found in the folk music of Balkan countries and Asia Minor, originated from ancient Greek music. 41 By analyzing the rhythmics of Albanian folk music, an Albanian musicologist, Beniamin Kruta, pays attention to the abundance of "aksak-rhythms" and the "limping" rhythms that are met very often such as 5/8, 7/8, 9/8, and etc. Based on the inner structure of the rhythms (often met quantitative formulas -uand u --, also the formula corresponding to the antique peon uuu-) and on the references to Greek authorities (Dionysius of Halicamassus, Aristides Quintilianus), the scholar concludes that aksak-rhythms, which are typical to Albanian folk music, originated from irrational (aAo')UL) old Greek rhythms. 42 A German musicologist, Peter Giger, gives Macedonian examples of rhythm. Those examples are interesting because they allow a closer look into a not reconstructed phenomenon, which originated during the times of ancient Greece and which is still alive in today's musical practice: 38 A. Ambrazas, "Antikos muzikos teorine sistema", Muzikos enciklopedija, t. If we take a closer look at the fonnulas of the musical rhythm provided by Giger, we can see the relation with ancient Greek rhythmics. 43 Obviously, the structure of such rhythmic cycles is made from the parts of uneven duration (2+3; 3+2 and etc.) and their relation cannot be expressed with the whole number (the longer duration is always equal to 1,5 of the shorter). This is the reason that allows musicologists to think that those rhythms are based on foundations of unequal durations. Sometimes, when such rhythms are being described, the concepts ofhemiola 44 [gr. hemi -half] and hemiolic rhythm 4s can be used.

The rhythmics of Estonian and Latvian songs
Let us analyze the rhythmics of folk music of Lithuanian neighbors -Estonians and Latvians. Latvian people are closely related to Lithuanians as they also are Indo-Europeans, the Balts. While Estonians are Finno-Ugric and not related to the Balts, they lived in the neighborhood of the BaIts for thousands of years. Therefore, when the rhythmics of Estonian songs is being analyzed it is very hard to answer the question if the rhythmics was fonned independently or it was the result of being close neighbors with the Balts. Finnish and Estonian verses of rune could be an Finno-Ugric example of the quantitative rhythmic. Herbert Tampere, an Estonian musicologist, folklorist, and educator, notices that the rhythmics of old Estonian folk songs is dissolved by relations of quantitative (durational) values, which is very common to the Estonian language that has a constant fluctuation of short and long syllables. 46 The scholar notices that the singing of rune in its recitative manner is reminiscent of speech. The tunes of rune have kept a very close relation with the language. The syllables of the Estonian language differ in their duration. The quantity of the syllables perfonns a grammatical function, while the dynamic stress is not that important. The dynamic and durational aspects of the syllable are not related to one another, which is similar with the Lithuanian language. In the melody of more primitive songs, the stress of the sentence is sometimes emphasized by prolonging the musical sound. In this way unusual, asymmetric figures of rhythm are made (eg. UU-U).47 In Tamperes, a collection of works in the Russian language, we can find a moderate anthology of Estonian songs published (63 songs in total). 43 Peter Giger, Die Kunst der Rhythmus, Mainz, 1993, p. 205. 44 See A. 4eKaHoBcKa, MY3blKaJlbHaJl 3mHOZpapUJl. MemoooJ/ozUJI U MemoouKa, MocKBa, 1983 R. Ambrazevicius, Etnines muzikos notacija ir transkripcija, Vi1nius, 1997, p. 45. 46 X. Ta~mepe, 3cmoHcKaJI HapOOHaJI My3blKa, JIeHHHrpa.n: MY3bIKa, 1983 At least two songs from the anthology have quantitative rhythmics, which is based on irregular fluctuation of short and long sounds. One of the songs is called a pasturage song (Nr. 23)48 and the second one is a swinging song (Nr. 41).49 The rhythmic picture of the last one is made from several constantly repeated rhythmic formulas: u u u lu u-u /u-u u u Iluu u luu-u/u-u u ull u u u /u uu lu u-u lu-u u u Ilu u u u lu u-u lu -u u u II etc. Irregular, durational rhythm is a common characteristic of the most archaic so Estonian songs while rune hymns have a more regular rhythm since they determine the octasyllabic structure of the verses. Ethnomusicologist Ingrid Riiiitel supports Tampere. She claims that, "Classical rune verses are based on octasyllabic quantitative meter verses, where long and short syllables regularly shift with each other."Sl Estonian runes are typologically related to our neighbor's -Latvian songs -quatrains. Stanzas of the songs are usually composed out of four eight-syllable verses, where the tendency of equal number of syllables dominates. Stanzas could be joined together according to the free will of the performer. According to a well-known Russian Indo-European and mythology researcher, Vladimir Toporov, Latvian quatrains (especially those with mythological content) are considered the oldest Indo-European example of epic poetry.S2 The number of song melodies is quite limited, but the number of quatrains is almost immense. Usually, on the same tune several different quatrains are being sung. Latvian ethnomusicologists write the songs down using the same value of notes, usually without a significant durational fluctuation. Nevertheless, while listening to the singing, it becomes clear that the durations of musical sounds are not equal, but obey the length of the text syllables. Here is an example. The name of the group is "Rasa" (director Valdis Muktupavels), the song from the CD "Beyond the River."s3 48 The picture of the rhythm of the pasturing song: uuu--u luu--u I uuu--u I uuuu -u 11; op. cif., p. 53. 49 Ibid.,p. 55. 50 Estonian folk song layers and their relationed chorography was being researched and provided by Estonian musicologist I. Riiiitel; to the most archaic, older than rune songs, layer of folklore musical, she ascribed woop-signals, bird sound imitation, cantabile inserts of fairytales, lamentations and weepings, and children songs (according to Riiiitel, they could appear about I thousand years BC): 11. PlOilTem" HcmOpU'leCKUe IV/acmbl 3cmOHCKoii lIapo()Hoii neCHU 6 KOHmeKcme 3mHU'leCKllX omHO-meHuii,TannHH, 1994,p. 16-27. 51 -u-u-u-u u-uu--uu -u-u-u-u u-uu--uu 1 I The order of the first verse (by the way, a quantitative type, where the first syllable is emphasized by the length not by the stress) is suddenly destroyed by the second verse, where long and short syllables shift irregularly. Musical rhythm flexibly adjusts to the rhythmics of quantitative poetic text. In other stanzas of the song, the order of long and short syllables changes, therefore, each stanza is being sung in a different rhythm. It seems that we are facing a case of extra deep language and musical syncretism -musical rhythm is not independent and totally surrenders the dictate of the poetic rhythm. Metrical structures are not steady yet either, they are only developing (obvious bending towards chorea -u). The dominion of length relationship towards stresses allows considering this example as a quantitative rhythmic type. The characteristic of rhythm in part is based on the way stresses work in the Latvian language -Latvian stress position is fixed (the first syllable is usually stressed), for that reason the shift of durations becomes so obvious.

The rhythmics of Lithuanian folk songs
Lithuanian folk music in the sense of quantitative rhythmics has not been researched a lot. Studies of the melodic of Lithuanian folk songs usually are narrowed to the analysis of rhythm formulas. Sometimes they mention cases with mixed and alternate rhythm. The melodic of Lithuanian songs has been researched by Jadvyga Ciurlionyte 54 , rhythmics of calendar songs was researched by Rimantas Astrauskas 55 , rhythmics of fairytales cantabile inserts -by Dalia Vaicenaviciene. 56 Rhythmics of Lithuanian sutartim!s (old polyphonic songs) was researched by Zenonas Slaviunas 57 , ROta GaidamaviCiute 58 , versification and poetic rhythm of Lithuanian folk song was researched by Leonardas Sauka. 59 Having analyzed the characteristics of rhythmics of the oldest types of melodies, Jadvyga Ciurlionyte divided them into three groups. The first group consisted of recitative melodies, which were closely related to the speaking tone and had weak melodic elements. According to Ciurlionyte, the second group consists of motory type melodies. The stressing of the rhythm, which is common to these melodies, corresponds to the rhythm of work or dance movements. The third group includes complicated melodies, where the leading melodic elements overmaster the rhythm of word by the rhythm of music. 60 Careful analysis of old and the oldest layer of Lithuanian folk songs reveals that the dominant rhythm is not stress-based (qualitative) but durational (quantitative). In Ciurlionyte's selection of Lithuanian folk song melodies, the song about the rye harvesting with its rhythm reminds one of the Indian Vedic chant and ancient Greek music. The rhythmic tone of this song is influenced by the sound shifts of different length (relation 1 :2), while the stress-based sound relationship does not have any meaning: ba -reli, ga -lan va -la -ko, ga-Ian va -lako.
It is not hard to notice that the length of syllables in the first stanza correspond to the length of syllables of the musical sounds in 13 cases out of a total 15. This demonstrates the deep syncretism of linguistic and musical rhythmics that existed in the past. The lengths of syllables in the text probably heavily influenced the formation of song rhythm. Sometimes rye harvesting song rhythmics is not so obvious because it is hidden by the more or less abundant melismata.
Calendar songs have been thoroughly researched by etlmomusicologist Rimantas Astrauskas. After the research and systematization of the rhythmics of calendar songs, he has established separate formulas of common rhythm for Christmas songs. The scientist somewhat groundlessly tends to ascribe calendar song melodies to the motory type rhythmics, envisage stress-based melodic rhythm and relationship to the movement. 61 As there are a number of cases where meter is mixed and alternate, and rhythm of calendar song melodies is quite irregular, there are some doubts about his interpretation. One should note, that the rhythm of mixed and alternate meter is created not by the stresses but by the changes of durations. Longer value sometimes emphasizes the endings of phrases and motives (DzM 109): So -dzi -no bro -lis Sodzino brolis obeleli kaleda. u u u u -I u u u -I u u -11 Ig o -be -le -Ii, The sounds of some melodies of advent -Christmas period songs in the sense of length develop into more or less consistent rhythm formulas, which constantly repeat throughout the song. 62 It is not hard to notice the relationship between the rhythm formulas of these songs:
Sometimes quantitative rhythmics so naturally grows into common to us equally pulsing metric rhythmics and becomes closely intertwined with it that only unexpected change of meter could reveal it. (eLM 311; analogues example -DzM 1 05b): bega e -I -ms de -vynia -ra f"":\
Quantitative type 5/8 meter formation (uu-u) unexpectedly intervenes into equal 3/8 meter movements and thus destroys the regular, consistent metric scheme. Probably, this is not an accident that a rhythmical insert having archaic origin corresponds with onomatopoeic word position ("Oi, kaleda").
There are many examples of "incorrect" rhythmics in shepherd folklore, (whoopee (yippee) way of singing, also songs with the onomatopoeic word "raUo", shepherd sortilege), in children's songs, in cantabile inserts of fairytales. Musicologist, Dalia Vaicenaviciene, notices quantitative type of rhythmics in the cantabile inserts of fairytales and their relationship with the language: "The characteristics of the spoken language are very evident in the rhythmics, intonation, and poetry of the cantabile inserts in fairytales. The rhythmics of the observable text is primarily seen in recitative cantabile inserts. The similar situation appears in other cantabile genres, which are close to spoken language -lamentation, weeping, shepherd songs (whooping, yipping, and repetition of onomatopoeic word "raUo ", etc.). The rhythmic of some texts of cantabile inserts influences the melodic rhythm of the inserts. ,,63 The rhythmics of some shepherd songs with the repetition of "ralio" and some sortilege is controlled by the clear and differentiated value relationship. Therefore, they can also be ascribed to the quantitative rhythmic type (DzM 21, common rhythm formula uvu/uuu-u//): The examples of quantitative rhythmics, which apparently disobey (or partially disobey) the stress-based pattern of rhythm, are plentiful in children's songs -cradlesongs, game songs, and animal carols. 64 Sometimes it is possible to envisage the characteristics of quantitative rhythmics in melodies of more recent songs. Their rhythm is regulated by the repeated metric cycles, which originated from the alternation of values and which recur throughout the entire song. Our musical experience forces us to interpret them as examples of mixed and alternate meter. Looking from the point of view of stress-based (qualitative) rhythmic positions, the meter of the mentioned songs is mixed and alternate. However quantitative rhythm analysis would allow us to claim that these rhythms are of quantitative origin. 65 Ciurlionyte also recognized the archaic origin of these rhythms: ,,As the melodic develops, consistent metric forms become stable, rhythmic facture differentiates. Because some earlier originated (in bold by E. v.) rhythmical formulas have become crystallized, freely pulsing rhythm becomes distinctive stress-based rhythm, which consists of alternatively repeated two and three part meter groups. 63 D. Vaicenaviciene,op. cif., For example, "Stov ozelis un tiltelio" LLD(I) 370; "Turejo bobute zilll ozeli" LLD(I) 385; .,Eik, ozeli, van dens" LLD(I) 422; "ISgriuvo uodas" LLD(I) 674; "VilkeJis kamaroj" LLD(I) 63110 65 It is possible to notice the formula of stable quantitative rhythmics: 5/8 \..A.J-V//; 5/8+3/8 \..A.J-V/-v//; 2/4 uuuu/-u-//; 6/8+7/8 uuuu-/uuu-//; 2/4+5/8+3/8 uuuu/uv-u/-u//.
In this way more common meter of five parts (5/4 and 5/8) and less common meter of seven parts (7/4 and 7/8) originates. ,, 66 That means that durational rhythm is more common in the older Lithuanian folk songs, while stress-based -in newer folk songs. Leonardas Sauka, who has carefully studied versification of the Lithuanian folk song, also notices that stress-based rhythm is uncommon for the old and the older layer of Lithuanian folk songs. This researcher claims that, "most melodies [. . .] do not have strict and regular stress-based rhythm. ,,67 Therefore, he legitimately questions the habit to divide songs into measures, in this way implicating the understanding of Western Europe's professional music where equal shifting of strong and weak parts of the measure are common. Sauka also notices that accentual and syllabic versification has not been formed in Lithuanian folk songs yet. He emphasizes that language and musical stresses often do not correspond in Lithuanian folk songs. Talking about the quantitative rhythmics of Lithuanian folk songs, the scholar writes the following: "The importance of the quantity of vowels (the length of syllables depends on them) is emphasized in the rhythm of Lithuanian folk songs. The shifts of long and short syllables in verses are irregular and unorganized. However, in the clauses there is a strong dominant -the stressed syllable is often long. ,, 68 The correlation of syllable and musical lengths is clearly noticeable in the oldest, relic layer of text -meaningless onomatopoeic, which mostly occur in refrains, or they themselves perform the function of a refrain: ralio, valio (yippee), lalo (u-), leliumai, tatato, ratilio (uu-). However, this correlation of syllable and musical lengths (i.e. when the long syllable correlates with the long musical sound) in general is not frequent in Lithuanian folk songs. More often, long musical sound is correlated with the stressed syllable. This circumstance demonstrates that the text of Lithuanian folk songs and their music are not of the same age, and once again it verifies the fact that is well known to ethnomusicologists that poetic texts tend to change faster than the musical ones.

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While exploring the rhythmics of Lithuanian music in a quantitative aspect, it is not hard to notice that quantitative rhythmics is common to old and the oldest layer of Lithuanian folk songs. This is evident in a variety of groups of song genres -children's songs (cradlesongs, game songs, animal carols), work songs (rye harvesting, shepherding songs), and calendar songs. The similarity of old songs (especially rye harvesting and some Christmas songs) to . Indian Vedic hymns and ancient Greek music (compare note examples No. 1,No. 3 and . No. 5) is clear. This similarity is not a coincidence. It is determined by the typological commonality of rhythmics in the examples of studies -all of them are ascribed to the quantitative not stress-based rhythmic type. This type of rhythmics is characterized by close musical and language links, the syncretic of music and language rhythm. It is quite regular that quantitative periodical rhythmics is common to the music of those nations, where the length and shortness of vowels play an important role. This circumstance witnesses the close interaction of language and music rhythms and doubtless language influence on the formation of musical durational rhythmics. An ethno-musicologist, Curt Sachs, provides a good insight concerning this question. He claims that, "Monosyllable languages are not good for the formation of quantitative versification. The separation of long and short syllables is less important than in those languages where polysyllable words dorninate.,,69 However, does the typological similarity of the rhythmics mean the genetic relationship? Is it possible to consider quantitative rhythmics to be the arch-rhythmics of Indo-Europeans (especially having in mind the common opposition of long and short syllables in Indo-European languages)? Not necessarily. This phenomenon of typological similarities of the rhythm could happen independently from each other. The phenomenon of quantitative rhythmics appears in the music of nations that are unrelated to Indo-Europeans -Arab (semitic) and Estonians (Finno-Ugric). Of course, we need to have in mind that Arab musical rhythms could have been formed under the influence of ancient Greek and Persian Sasanidic dynasty music. Quantitative rhythmics of Estonian runes songs could be the result of the Baltic (Latvian and Lithuanian) neighborhood. Nevertheless, quantitative rhythmics exists in even more distant cultures, for example, in the music of the West African Akan tribe 70 and stockbreeders of Korea. 7 ] Therefore, it should be considered that quantitative rhythmics is a universal phenomenon, which transcends the Indo-European linguistic region.
Still, the idea that the rhythmics of ancient Indian, ancient Greek, and the old layer of Lithuanian folk songs have common Indo-European origin should not be totally discarded. Ethnomusicologists know very well that musical models change slower with time than the texts. They also recognize the stable musical models -the existence of "musical archetypes". However, this assumption of common Indo-European origin of quantitative rhythmics still needs further musicological research.