Knowledge Marketing: a Postmodern Approach

Knowledge is presented in various discourses and in different methodological contexts, as generally reduced to modern and postmodern patterns. The methodological assumptions of knowledge marketing are analyzed and practical orientations concordant with the realities of a knowledge society are formulated. The main purpose is to reveal the distinctions between the classical modern modes of rationalization and the information or knowledge model of rationalization, which the author asserts is based on the conception of legitimative trans-informationality grand discourse. Two types of knowledge identities characterize the market and reflect knowledge transfer in social and professional generalization of knowledge.


Introduction
Knowledge has been the core notion of the current period, which has been used to explain all social phenomena and their modes of action. It is possible to draw dependence relations between the social state, which is defined as a knowledge society, knowledge economy and further still, knowledge management. Knowledge, as an attribute, acquires different and ambivalent connotations. However, it is evident that the main features of knowledge correlate with forces of globalization and communication semantically.
The universality of the social role of knowledge does not necessarily imply that knowledge is some new and magical research branch per se, which may provide a new explanation to all existing phenomena. Knowledge may be interpreted in very different discourses and in very various methodological contexts, which in the most general meaning may be reduced to modern and postmodern patterns. The way that social activity is organized and the tendencies of management depend greatly on these contexts.
Normally we distinguish systematic and complex disjuncture, which suppose objectivity, specialization, input -output symmetry and direct calculating on the one hand and subjectivity, holism, integration on the other hand. I t is possible to distinguish a variety of modem / postmodem features and combinations of their conjunctions, but what is important in this respect is to define the tendency itself and its applicability to the concept of marketing. That is why the main aim of this article is to analyze methodological presumptions of knowledge marketing and to formulate practical orientations, which correspond with the realities of knowledge society. The main presumption of the research is to reveal the distinction between the classic modem (systematic, objectivistic, calculative) way of rationalization and information, or a knowledge-based way of rationalization. The author of the article bases the last model of rationalization on the conception of legitimative trans-informationality grand-discourse (Augustinaitis 1999).

Knowledge Marketing Investigation Presumptions
It is quite a wonder that the term "knowledge marketing" is still unusual in the sphere of marketing research regardless of the fashion ability of knowledge management. The more common terms "marketing knowledge" (Moon 1999), or "marketing infonnation" are more often used and are interpreted as infonnation maintenance of marketing processes. They are understood as infonnational support of marketing, infonnation processes, statistical information, and the technological or psychological basis of communication but not as the creation of value systems and lifestyle acceptance. Such interpretation of communication shows that contemporary marketing treats communication and infonnation factors as subsidiaries, even though they are quite an important function and a constituent part of marketing. Besides, this shows that marketing is rather a conservative field of study, still in its "golden age", i. e. to the tradition of the fifties and sixties, which was formed by the classical political economy and management theories. Communication and infonnation factors are still not perceived enough as the substance of marketing and the way of integrated action, but only as supporting systems.
The application of knowledge marketing has been very uncommon, even sporadic, mostly in respect to knowledge communication and e-marketing. It is typical to see "e-commerce solutions as a promotional marketing service, IKM (Integrated Knowledge Marketing), which, for full-service agency, offers clients strategic development and execution of promotional programs, as well as promotional merchandise, design, and manufacturing" (E-Commerce 2001). At the same time, it is a symptom showing that integration of marketing is better comprehended in a modem than in postmodem context. Such infrequent and unsystematic use of the tenn "knowledge marketing" in the field, which is regarded as one of the whales of global integration itself, seems quite a paradox.
Despite the deficiency of postmodem discourse, the situation is not as bleak as it may seem at first. The ranks of communication and information factors are swelling increasingly. It is a constant process. That is why it is necessary to understand how marketing processes are structurally "overwhelmed" and assimilated from within by communication and information processes.
There are two methods of summarizing the tendencies of integration of communication and information factors into marketing: the dimensional (aspectual) method and the functional method. The first method outlines "outside" communication and infonnation contexts and approaches towards its supporting role in contemporary marketing: 1) Information system supplying and maintenance, i. e. infonnation systems, MIS for marketing, statistical and sociological information, infonnation analysis in general; 2) Connected or netted marketing communication; 3) Linguistic, semantic and symbolic communication; 4) Communication psychology; 5) Communication sociology.
The second approach discloses the ways that marketing concepts and disciplines are fonned when various combinations of communication and infonnational factors are being integrated into marketing directly. The three most fashionable and most technologically, socially and managerially integrated complexes are: • Direct marketing; • Integrated Marketing Communication; The latter is actually a proximate knowledge management transfonnation in marketing and it directly approaches the concept of knowledge marketing or even integrated knowledge marketing. Undoubtedly, there are a number of different communicative types of marketing interactions, e. g. "One-to-one marketing system" etc. All those conceptions correct themselves according to contemporary requirements and methodologically react to the growing dynamics of changes in the environment, which treat the world as an enonnous highly complex market, e. g. the interdisciplinary fields that comprise the discipline of Infonning Science provide their clientele with infonnation in a fonn, fonnat, and schedule that maximizes its effectiveness and is supported by MIS (http:is.2002.com). The most general view toward integration of communication factors into marketing is a web-marketing concept, including the virtual market and cyber-client, because "internet-has imposed at training, culture, entertaining, communication and personal business relations level" (Foglio, Stanevicius 2002).
For the reasons the second stage of the problem analysis concerns methodological presumptions of the functioning of knowledge in marketing, based on communication and infonnation. In this case marketing is one of the most dynamic, changeable and universal phenomena of the recent time, which alters all human relationships. Astonishingly, one of the synonyms of knowledge society is "service society" or "market society" (Thomas 2002) and that allows for the treatment of all kinds of social activities from the marketing point of view. Metaphors like "McDonaldization" (Ritzer 1996) or "McWorld" (Barber 1995) show only marketing globalization tendencies. From the postmodem point of view the universe of marketing as a practical subject is akin to totalitarianism of service society. The whole of our activities could be characterized in tenns of "total servicism" as an integral part of the human being. It marks totality of "servicism" that stresses such essential features as partly the serviceability or serviceableness of society and "customerism / consumerism". "Servicism" is inseparable from managing, complexity and publicity as social distinctions. "Servicism" is based upon infonnation relations. Where there is an infonnation relationship, embodying human relations, it takes the shape of a service. When one perfonnes an act, one does a service at the same time, because by performing that act you volens nolens express an infonnation relationship with your fellow citizens and even with the global context and involuntarily do a service, even to yourself as it may be. The ability to manage, which takes the fonn of indirect human relations, is "servicism" at the same time and it disillusions the autonomy of the special fields of human activities (Augustinaitis 2001A).
These tendencies detennine a shift from integrated marketing communication and CRM to knowledge marketing and integrated knowledge marketing.
Marketing is increasingly covered by traditional and networked communication and infonnation processes. It leads to the assimilation and penetration of marketing into the whole complexity of the global knowledge environment. "Servicism" of connected knowledge relations and knowledge transfers allows for us to speak about marketing convergence. Marketing as a traditional economics and a, later, management field is converging with information contexts and communication generalities.

Knowledge Marketing as a Branch of Communication
The next surprising question is how communication mechanisms work as a knowledge base of marketing. The first and the most compelling feature of qualitative changes of marketing is the cultural and ethic invasion into communication and information maintenance of marketing. This information diffusion creates a new axis between objectivity and subjectivity, involving cultural estimates and values as the necessary attributes (measure of knowledge). It leads to the view of marketing as ideology management. Marketing becomes a range of instrument for values management, through intermediate control of economic and natural entities. Astonishingly, merely socio-psychological characteristics no longer play an important role for marketing. The value world becomes another special element of social structure, which identifies a postmodem human as not a purposeful "pilgrim", but "stroller", "vagabond", "tourist" and "player" (Bauman 1995, p. 91). It argues the essential shifting of the global market toward the unbelievable dynamics of postmodem values ambivalence.
The main goal of contemporary marketing is to master those elements of ethical chaos, in which common marketing methods are inert. More and more often market concepts are being created on the ideological level. This involves knowledge problems straight into marketing field as a sharing of common ideas in different stratums of society. The studying of communication is understood primarily as a mechanism of marketing, because it is the one and only way to manage the dynamic multiplicity and spreading of knowledge, which shapes original combinations of cultural priorities, preferences and choices in the market. First of all those statements are creating problems in customer outlook and evaluation of value systems. It proceeds on the methodological foundation of the so-called wisdom management, the core of which is the creating, control and adoption of data, the information and knowledge environment and communication channels. In this respect the concept of knowledge marketing is oriented to fit the dynamic and diffused customer needs in the changeable market through increasing competence. The main guidelines of values and wisdom are forming lifestyles, which are oriented to one or an other substantial condition of social conduct. J. Rifkin termed this phenomenon buying the "access to lifestyle" (Ritkin 2000). Basically, knowledge marketing is the art to shape or to control lifestyles.
One of the most important factors for knowledge marketing is the interconnected media environment. E-media, e-joumalism and all forms of infotainment are the largest world values factories (Augustinaitis 2001 B). They are underlying sources producing tacit and explicit knowledge for marketing needs. They are prerequisites for building "CCC" concept circuitcorporate, communication and competence identity. Cultural production is directly involved into the traditional value chain. In this respect, marketing is more like an orientation of the product itself. Marketing absorbs all kinds of cultural shapes and tendencies of the cultural ambivalence of the postmodem being.
One of the strongest factors of the postmodem value system, which influences radical cultural changes, is multiculturalism and transculturalism. In the marketing sphere this implies that markets could be characterized by two types of know/edge identities. So both ty-pes of value identity reflect two types ofknowledge transfer.
The first is traditionally related to objective infonnation resources, which embody the systems of values, historically associated with modem nonnative tradition. It is a basis for marketing decision combinations in a large spectrum of experimental and objective knowledge. This type is oriented towards the physical, spatial and time parameters of the customer, who first considers socio-psychological characteristics. This sphere of marketing has been thoroughly investigated, and in Lithuania this approach is fundamentally conceptualised in the works of V. P. Pranulis (Pranulis 2002, p. 228-229).
The second type consists of dynamic and ambivalent multi-identities fonned by global tendencies and virtual space. This is a dichotomy of two complementary, confronting and assimilating tendencies which disturb the "orderly" systemic comprehension of marketing.
The contemporary marketing situation is unique: it is the search for practical solutions, how to control effectively and fonn the customers' value orientations at the intersection of these two types of identification.
In this respect, it is important to draw attention to the phenomenon of multilevel marketing, which tries to solve this dilemma from "power" positions. It means identifying and bringing the user into line with the distributor and enforcing the same artificial system of standards and nonns, which buffer the influences of multi-identities. The concept of multilevel marketing is actually based on a religious model, and the key component is the trust in the basic value system. The main aim is not the act of transferring a commodity or service, but rather, the act of ideological recruitment and the pressing of creed. A commodity is sold by absorbing and accepting detenninate views, and the whole system of discounts and hopes for future profit de-pends solely on one's commitment and devotion to the chosen "sect" of marketing. It is no wonder that only a small group of the favoured here forms the pyramids of the faithful and eventually gets access to the Marketing Paradise. The remainder sooner or later is overcome by the pull of multi-identities.
What strikes most of all is the fact that both types of identification discussed above can be characterized on the same scale of "objectivity-subjectivity". This raises the question of methodological distinction between the types of marketing knowledge itself and the tendencies of its practical applicability. This topic is an issue of marketing generalization.

Marketing Generalization
Marketing as a knowledge phenomenon is a non-classical science and professional field. Marketing knowledge as an interdisciplinary complex embraces various impacts from the side of traditional specialized sciences like economics, psychology, sociology, the cognitive sciences, mathematics, statistics and modern sciences like management, administration, cybernetics, communication and administration, informatics and so on. However, marketing knowledge structure consists not only of pure scientific knowledge. It has been substantially influenced by experiences, ethic, aesthetic, cultural contexts and discourses, traditions etc. In this respect, marketing is very similar to other modern professional spheres like, for instance, social work, PR, library and information science.
The specific origin of marketing is a starting point for the theoretical examination of its knowledge structure and functions, which are important for the definition of postmodern paradigms of marketing decision-making. Traditional specialized marketing knowledge is a root of the first trend of generalisation, i. e. social generali. zation of knowledge. Social generalization facilitates all fonns of inter-systemic interactions that are interplaying among different social systems (Kleve 2001, p. 22-23). This way of generalization generates specific knowledge, which allows for the creating and designing of marketing models in a particular social situation. It is oriented toward excluding the priorities of social functions. Social generalisation builds such knowledge combination which makes it possible to estimate the market condition and business environment through inter-systemic functions amongst, for example, economic resources, legislation system, financial policy, education level, political system etc. This type of generalization expands Kotler's generic marketing and marketing broadening conceptions. For intersystemic knowledge analysis a broad Weltanschauung and qualitative professional education is needed. From the point of view of decisionmaking the main issue of social generalization is to find reacting mechanisms for amortization of intensity of inter-systemic interactions. It is been looking of alternatives between "voluntarism and muddling through" helping systemic means based on objective infonnation. (Bodenstein, Spiller 1998, p. 31-35). Principally, social generalisation is conjunct with the first type of knowledge identity.
The second trend is professional generalization of know /edge. This refers to knowledge relationships beyond social systems. Professional generalization requires building of "mixes" of professional knowledge, skills and methods for practical adaptation in unique circumstances of marketing activities. It allows for the creation of key competence and the use of intellectual capital, i. e. -Customer capital (Customer base / Customer relationships / Customer potential), Organizational Capital (Process / Culture / Innovation capitals), Human Capital (Base value / Re-lationships value / Potential value) (Sveiby 1999;Bieliiinas 2000). Professional generalization accumulates the whole of knowledge related topersonal and interpersonal attributiveness in the field of marketing activities. The individual stands in the centre of all interactions. Historically, this type resembles the classical treatment of the human concept of marketing. From the communication point ofview, this trend is conjunct to dynamic multi-identity.

Applied Tendencies
Both social and professional generalizations interplayas a macro-and micro-integration in social tenns. In other words, these trends include both the objective and subjective sides of marketing occurrences. Depending on the level of generalization, it is possible to distinguish three basic approaches to knowledge marketing: • Knowledge content; • Knowledge processing and organizing; • Knowledge technologies.
The content of knowledge derives from inter-systemic interactions and marketing varieties depending on the applied field. From the methodological point of view, knowledge content reflects the marketing integrity level according to the level of social complexity. It leads to the building of such interesting interdisciplinary marketing constructs as policy marketing, infonnation marketing, social marketing, event marketing etc., which fonn a specified knowledge content. The marketing elements are expanded and transfonned in such specific knowledge complexes. A typical case is political marketing as the expansion of the "servicism" phenomenon and its communicative reflection on the branch of political communication. Another example could be ethical marketing, the knowledge structure of which overlaps with applied philosophy and ju-risprudence problems. Many of there types of marketing reflect the tendency toward the deeper social explosion of marketing.
Knowledge processing and organizing correspond to professional generalization and the personal attribution of knowledge and its communicative tissue. This approach leads toward communicative oriented marketing concepts and expresses paradigms of knowledge interpretation and dissemination. It allows for competence sharing in different spheres ofthe market. The usual illustration of this tendency is the IMC (Integrated Marketing Communications) concept and its managerial sense of corporate communication (Pickton, Broderick 2001). The communication mixes are the main tool for the shaping of individualized marketing mixes in the integrated business environment. The IMC complex has extensions to a more inherent managerial expression in integrated communication and integrated marketing concepts. Both of them lead to their transformation to knowledge marketing logically, because communication instruments are carrying over and manipulating knowledge for universal implementation of marketing elements into social processes.
The other case is information marketing, the simplest understanding of which is dissemination of information for marketing purposes (Shapiro, Varian 1998). In other words, the question is how to represent information for its distribution. However, a natural consequence of this concept's development is the tendency to add a managerial sense to information marketing. At its core are efforts to represent all organizational processes in the best information forms independently of commercial or non-commercial information purposes. Information marketing does not distinguish between information for external or internal usage. It allows for improving information and communication skills and organizational behavio-ur in general. Information marketing stimulates the sharing of competence, creates adequate images and enhances corporate communication. All of these promote individual design of organization on the knowledge marketing level. Thus, information marketing is a specific management concept leading to the deconstruction of organisations in a post modem way.
The third approach manifests a technological foundation of knowledge. Knowledge technologies reflect attempts to integrate all aspects of marketing. This view represents CRM and direct marketing conceptions. They involve a variety of cultural elements, personalized interactions and possibilities for split-second flexibility, but, nevertheless, do not overpass boundaries of the original commercial sphere. This reason restricts the assimilation of environmental value whirlpools into marketing activities in full. CRM and direct marketing create only limited islands of values, which allow for the attainment of trust and loyalty of customers, but not to manage the value fashions themselves.
On the contrary, the fitting of CRM or direct marketing models into other spheres of social reality provides new marketing possibilities for knowledge use. For example, marketing diffuses itself into above-mentioned political branch very successfully. Considering postmodem political bodies, for instance, deliberative democracy / teledemocracy or communitarianism are very similar to the canons of CRM and could be interpreted along the same lines (London 1995). This is very strong occurrence of knowledge marketing on the ideological field itself. Communitarianism emerged in the 1980s as a reaction against formal liberal rules and processes. Its essence is a balance between the need for individual rights and common social responsibilities. Autonomous values do not exist in isolation, but are shaped by values and culture of communities. From the postmodem point of view it reflects the new management paradigm in the chaos of the values environment, in which our society will continue to become normless, self-centred, and driven by special interests and power seeking.

Information Rules
The postmodem marketing and decision-making paradigm could be deduced from the discourse of trans-informationality as a methodological base of intermediary of reality. Attempts to found such an informational type of grand-discourse include the estimating or ideological side of information as its essential attribute as well. Knowledge estimating is progressively becoming a function of marketing in the knowledge economy. Knowledge estimating, leading to knowledge marketing, extends the notion of marketing in general. The main function of knowledge marketing is to regulate the economic "metabolism" of the business environment.
The postmodem type of knowledge-based decision-making, or information rationalism, creates new possibilities for manipulating knowledge. Its manifestations are such attractive marketing concepts as social marketing and event marketing. These branches are knowledge zones which result in tools for postmodem / information rationalism and decision-making per se, because these knowledge fields distinguish themselves on a high level of complexity and social integration. Social marketing and event marketing shape its individual knowledge structure in each situation and in all spheres of social activities. The social marketing notion founded by P. Kotler is characterized primarily as a specific market-oriented mindset, which operates in all areas of social activities. Social marketing is projected straight into the ideological 126 dimension and described in such uncertain terms as the gaining of social intellectual capital or ethical added value. However, in management practice this rather abstract concept is being realised in very determined communication methodologies (Beilmann 1995;Fischer 2000;Waisbord 2001).
The "skipping" of knowledge allocations and marketing targets is inherent in event marketing (Event marketing 1998). In fact, all decisions are made against differences in local, region or global contexts into the dynamic knowledge continuum, integrating digital forms of knowledge as well. According to this attitude the giant infotainment context itself is a global knowledge marketing "machine". It is no wonder then, that social and event marketing are often treated as activities of the public sphere in general.
The postmodem paradigm of decision-making, considering knowledge marketing, is kind of information rationalism in principle and is based on information rules (Shapiro, Varian 1999). Information rules are founded on other logic than objective modem calculations. Trans-informationality as a discourse attempts to integrate modem and postmodem ways of thinking. One of the most illustrative cases is the eQ ("Electronic Intelligence") metaphoric formula: eQ = IQ + EQ + X, where IQ is the Intelligence Quotient, that reflects mathematical and analytical abilities; EQ is the emotional Quotient, that reflects treatment competence, self-awareness and social competence; X is a factor that integrates all competences and skills, and is characterized in three ways: • Fantasy in IT field; • Estrangement from time and space; • Competence for networking and netted thinking (Wendt 2000).
In this approach knowledge marketing reflects the activity of its diffusion into a paradoxical information world and assimilation with many of the previously separate social areas, where creativity, subjectivity and individualism in acting with knowledge prevail. This value-based universal convergence of informational and ideological reciprocity leads not only to new a business environment known as the knowledge economy, but also to highly integrated forms of commerce, which have their expressions in such fashionable and futuristic concepts as uCommerce (Ubiquitous or sometimes Universal Commerce), sCommerce (Silent Commerce) or hCommerce (Hybrid Commerce). This is the authentic field for multifarious expressions of knowledge marketing. In this shelf of commerce, the environment learning dimension and knowledge are directly transformed into technological interactions.
This revolutionary technological shift, which evokes and maintains flooding of emerging smart devices, like voice enabled technologies or sensors linked to a network of data storage and retrieval, thus enabling new commerce capabilities, is not the subject of this investigation. More interesting is the modelling of features which are significant for social consequences and the marketing environment, e. g. the ability of objects to identify themselves, new personal identification systems, traffic management systems, wildlife management and environmental condition monitoring. In the economic respect ubiquitous commerce is altering supply and value chain activities in a radical way. The three main principles of uCommerce are: • Always On, which means non-stop, uninterrupted interconnectivity, where commerce can occur continuously between people, business and objects; • Always Aware, which means context will be turned into value. Objects will be aware of their position, temperature, movement, and more; • Always Active, whish means people and objects can act at the precisely right time in the right way. uCommerce will include a continuous series of micro-activities, in addition to discrete transactions (Chalaby 2001).

Instead of Conclusionsa Methodological Skeleton
From the methodological positions all occurrences of the recent business environment are being described more and more in information terms, because the complex of information methods is a single effective way to fight with the unmanageability of knowledge and to make decisions using non-linear logic. There are several types of information methods, which are applied in different types of relationships in the marketing field. The most common group of methods is information system methods, coordinated with objective information and correlated with the relationships among objects of reality.
Another large-scale methods group is IT methods used to control digital processes of data and information interchange.
However, most intriguing for analysis of knowledge marketing is a group of knowledge transfer and estimating methods. These information methods, as a postmodem type of information methods, are used to measure interactions and to describe the social context in the connected global business sphere. Social interactions are treated as non-objective information relationships, i. e. an interface between economic and natural objects, and manifest themselves through information representation. This part is designated for value system management and represents the whole social reality as the information context or the information carrier world, in which objects of nature and economics, as well humans are handled as information carriers or as having information added value. This attitude approaches the tendency of progressive information diffusion into objective reality.
The knowledge marketing field is becoming more and more pertinent to the global information environment. Knowledge marketing activities consist of many different types of methods for preparation of information tissue. It is an unlimited quantity of informational preparation of dynamic social reality as a knowledge-covered sphere. Marketing activities include many informational manipulations, which proceed essentially on a methodological base according to the theory of information seeking. Possibilities to deal with values provide mixing with different dimensions of information context on the individual level and individuality of concrete circumstances. There is an unlimited number of parameters and characteristics of information seeking, which reflect qualitative features of social interactions.
Combining a number of criteria of information seeking in multiple information space leads to informational reconstruction of economical concern. A typical example of post modern decision-making based on the information paradigm is the concept of information transforming of economics by Evans and Wurster (1999). The main factors of deconstruction of economics and value chain are notions of reciprocity criteria of richness and reach and its trade-off as universal economic categories. It is very interesting to notice that richness and rich are in fact equal to the main concept of information retrieval and information seeking. Information search precision (richness) and search capacity (reach) are fundamental criteria for effectiveness in information seeking. It was described theoretically by F. W. Lancaster at the end of sixties 128 as a result of "Cranfield study" as a basic mechanism of information seeking. The contemporary attempts to modify and take over the patterns of information seeking from the new economy perspective after almost thirty years reveal tendencies towards a social universalism of this concept. So the notion "take-off' is borrowed from information seeking theory in its authentic sense and directly transferred to the business sphere.
The methodology of information seeking provides unique possibilities for integrating the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of information, both of which are extrapolated to the management field as integrated forms of objective information and ideological values, technical data processing and personalized knowledge. Objective facts and the truths of science become a "power of expressions", when value are added. In this respect, tradeoff is one of the central information rules of post modern thinking, which brings the situ ational information seeking vs. stabile economic or natural contexts to the foreground.
The postmodern approach allows for the equating and application of information seeking methods to knowledge marketing directly. Marketing interactions may be treated as media (documents) content. Thus, marketing strategy following search strategy modernisation is determined by relevance, request, recall, precision and capacity. There exist many information seeking concepts which comprise a complex of tools for different combinations of uses: undirected viewing, conditioned viewing, formal and informal search, interactive search, mono-and multidimensional search, etc. Very attractive and effective concepts of information seeking and retrieval are N. Belkin's "episodic" model, T. Saracevic's stratified model in situated context, P. Ingwersen's cognitive model, the information seeking model of T. Wilson and other intriguing attempts of go aprūpinimas ir 2) vidiniai marketingo informacijos I komunikacijos kompleksai. Metodologine prasme tai veda i korcliuojamą su bendrąja marketingo sąvoka globalaus "paslaugumo" ir "viešumo" supratimą, kuris teoriškai ir praktiškai grindžiamas ivairiais integruotos marketingo komunikacijos tipais. Iš esmės tai yra tapatu tokioms socialinėms metaforoms kaip "McDonaldization" (Ritzer 1996) ar "McWorld" (Barber 1995).