Language Policy at Universities in the Process of Internationalisation: Vilnius University Students’ Views

1.1. Language Policy and its Needs at Higher Education Institutions

Language policy is considered a complicated concept. According to Schiffman (1996, p. 276), language policy is determined by the historical and cultural factors of the country and is viewed as the following:

‘a cultural construct that rests primarily on other conceptual elements – belief systems, attitudes, myths – the whole complex that we are referring to as linguistic culture, which is the sum totality of ideas, values, beliefs, attitudes, prejudices, religious strictures, and all the other cultural ‘baggage’ that speakers bring to their dealings with language from their background.’

This definition highlights the importance of a country’s historical heritage, which influences the country’s views of how they shape their language policy. In the opinion of the Lithuanian scholars Kėvalienė and Raipa (2007, p. 47), language policy is an ambiguous concept, which in the first place is:

‘what the government does formally – by legislating, enforcing court decisions, creating various authorities, in other words, determining what must be the public use of the language(s), developing the language skills necessary to meet the priorities of the state by setting the rights and educational opportunities of individuals or groups of individuals to use and nurture their language(s). Language policy is the decisions (rules, instructions, recommendations, directives, guidelines) made by the state on the status, use, areas of use and users of the language(s)’ (translated by the author).

Evidently, language policy has a judicious force and this shows how language policy-making is carried out at the state level and defines language usage in state institutions, educational ones as well. Language policy determines three important issues: the use of the language within a state, the right and opportunity for its citizens to use the language, and the obligation to preserve and nurture the language. Clearly, the way the language policies are implemented depends on a specific country’s decision on how they want to maintain the use of their languages, for example, by issuing laws and establishing various institutions and authorities to protect their language(s).

The Center for Applied Linguistics (https://www.cal.org/areas-of-impact/language-planning-policy) provides an explanation of language policy with the incorporation of language planning and highlights the importance of decisions of language policy and planning that influence the rights of language use and maintenance.

The Universal Lithuanian encyclopedia (Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija) (https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/kalbu-politika/) defines language policy as a set of measures to implement the pre-determined language provisions of the society. Language policy is said to be determined and implemented by state institutions and is carried out in three areas: language status regulation, language corpus (language system and usage) planning, and language teaching.

In Lithuania the Law on the State Language of the Republic of Lithuania (https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAD/TAIS.15211?jfwid=rivwzvpvg) defines the status of the Lithuanian language as a state language and, among other things, defines the right guaranteed by the state to the residents of the Republic of Lithuania to obtain higher education in the state language. The Law on Science and Studies of the Republic of Lithuania (https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAD/TAIS.343430), states, inter alia, that the language of instruction in state higher education institutions is Lithuanian, but that it is also possible to teach in other languages ​​when: the intended study results are related to the knowledge of a foreign language; lecturers or other academic activities are led by foreign lecturers; international students study at a higher education institution according to a certain study programme; or studies are carried out in accordance with joint study programmes with foreign higher education institutions.

The European Union's language policy is based on respect for linguistic diversity in all member states and the development of intercultural dialogue throughout the Union. To make mutual understanding truly possible, the EU promotes the teaching and learning of foreign languages ​​and the mobility of every citizen through specific education and training programmes. Knowledge of a foreign language is considered one of the key skills that all citizens of the European Union need to acquire in order to have more opportunities for learning and employment. In 2017 at the Gothenburg Social Summit, the European Commission set out the idea of ​​a European Education Area becoming ‘the norm to speak two languages ​​in addition to the mother tongue’ (COM (2017) 0673).

The role of language is important in the processes of internationalisation in the Area of Higher Education in Europe. This raises the need for universities to define their institutional language policies in order to suit the needs of the incoming linguistically diverse academic staff and international students and to create more favorable educational environments for all. It is clear that the institutional language policy should be in harmony with the state language policy. Therefore, the reasons for institutional language policies at universities as highlighted by scholars (Kaša and Mhamed 2013; Kuteeva 2014; Mortensen 2014; Kibbermann 2017) are academic mobility, demographic decline, and thus increased internationalisation. The mobility of students and staff requires a common language of communication for both hosts and visitors, which in most cases is English as a lingua franca. As Kibbermann (2017) observes, internationalisation is closely related to the increasing use of English in academic settings where it has never before been used so extensively.

A similar view is expressed by Mortensen (2014), who states that English is commonly seen as the ‘natural’ choice for university internationalisation, and English is accordingly promoted as the ‘obvious’ language of instruction for international education in many university policies. As a result of internationalisation, many universities have adopted English-medium instruction (EMI) programmes. And the declining demographic situation in many countries has made many universities look for ways to attract international students (Kuteeva 2014). Given the fact that English has recently held the dominant role as the language of academia, universities in many countries have been under pressure to open study programmes in English. As Kaša and Mhamed (2013) claim, the way out for the universities of non-Anglo-Saxon countries is also to offer more study programmes in the English language in order to keep up in the competition with universities in the English-speaking countries.

The international dominance of the English language has been a much-discussed issue among scholars. Many researchers have analysed the consequences of an extensive introduction of EMI programmes in various countries and have taken a variety of perspectives. The latest research carried out by Orduna-Nocito and Sánchez-Garcia (2022) revealed that with the introduction of EMI there has been a misalignment between the institutional language policies of universities and teachers’ views on their teaching and learning. The authors argue that although many universities are drafting policies to guide their academic staff in this process, what has to be examined is whether teachers’ views and experiences are aligned with what these policies determine and if they are complementary or far removed from each other.

Similar issues have been raised by Airey, Lauridsen, Räsänen, Salö and Schwach (2017) in their study on the consequences of the extensive use of EMI programmes in the universities of the Nordic countries. The authors (pp. 563–564) revealed that Danish universities introduced EMI programmes very quickly and attracted a growing number of international students. They claimed that lecturers and students were able to switch to English in higher education teaching and learning without any problems; however, they also highlighted that in addition to learning other languages Danes also needed to strengthen their English. In Finnish universities, the quality of teaching and advising, demonstration of skills in the language of instruction, and promotion of national languages and culture are highlighted. The institutional language policy in Finnish universities usually provides that both Finnish/Swedish and English academic communication is to be supported systematically in order to empower the communication of disciplinary expertise to various audiences. The authors (Airey, Lauridsen, Räsänen, Salö and Schwach 2017, pp. 569–570) draw attention to the fact that university language policies should encourage the faculty discussion that disciplinary literacy goals be specified for each course in compliance with the language-learning outcomes. This includes detailing how these goals relate to the overarching disciplinary literacy goals of the curriculum and how these skills will be taught and assessed.

Another important issue that was raised by Airey, Lauridsen, Räsänen, Salö and Schwach (2017, p. 568) is the Nordic universities’ concern about the loss of the domain of their national languages with the increase of the EMI courses. In defence of their national languages, the Nordic countries authorised the Nordic language policy that recommended the adoption of parallel language use, which was explained as follows: ‘the concurrent use of several languages within one or more areas. None of the languages abolishes or replaces the other; they are used in parallel’ (Nordic Council of Ministers 2007, p. 93, as cited in Airey, Lauridsen, Räsänen, Salö and Schwach 2017, p. 568). This was a pragmatic solution that was constructed in order to deal with the rapid expansion of English in Nordic higher education with the aim of protecting their state languages.

A slightly different situation in the Baltic countries has been observed by the study carried out by Kaša and Mhamed (2013, p. 33-47) and Bulajeva, Hogan-Brun (2014). In the Baltic context, policy decisions regarding the use of language have been framed by the thorny historical legacies of Soviet occupation. Although English is the most commonly used foreign language in higher education in the Baltic countries, contemporary language policy is impacted by prior historical context and is aimed at sustaining and developing the use of national languages in higher education. Their research demonstrated that institutions of higher education in the Baltic countries attempt to keep the balance between the promotion and strengthening of their native languages on the one hand and making an attempt to become more open to international students on the other, thus offering more study programmes in English and other languages. The predominance of the English language, however, might be viewed as a threat to native languages. The authors conclude that in the Baltic countries, the official policies toward the use of language in higher education at the beginning of the twenty-first century were guided by assertions of strengthening national official languages while advancing the international profile by using instruction in English.

It should be pointed out that language policy in the context of internationalisation does embrace a wider use of languages and does not limit itself to the number of EMI programmes or the description of the use of languages in the area of teaching and learning. Language use is diverse and it is of great importance in other areas of university life as well, such as communicating with the academic community and disseminating research to local as well as international communities. According to Saarinen and Taalas (2017), language policy reflects our approach to understanding the functions of language in society as well as in the research field. Moreover, as Kibbermann (2017) claims, science and research in higher education are international by nature. Depending on the target audience to be achieved, the transfer of research is to be carried out not only in English but in other languages as well. While drafting institutional language policies, universities must therefore pay attention to the use of languages in all areas of university life.

Since drafting and authorising institutional language policies is a part of universities’ internationalisation policies, the universities themselves must devote significant resources to this endeavor (Block 2016). Furthermore, in order to draw up a university language policy, there are many factors that should be taken into consideration starting with the state language policy and harmonising it with the stakeholders’ discourses, needs, and interactions. The following sections of the article will describe the reasons for developing an institutional language policy at Vilnius University, the process of its preparation, and its structure, and will reveal the research findings of one of the stakeholders’ groups – students’ views on the current state of the language policy at VU.

1.2. The Reasons for the Development of the VU Language Policy Guidelines

As stated by Kortmann (2019, pp. 3–4), two central questions should be answered before deciding on an institutional language policy: why should the higher education institutions (HEIs) want a language policy in the first place (e.g. as an important strategic instrument in the institutional internationalisation policy or as a measure for quality assurance and enhancement)? What are the HEIs overall goals and strategies? These were also the questions that were addressed at the beginning of the development process of the VU Language Policy Guidelines.

It could be stated that the development of Vilnius University’s Language Policy Guidelines alongside its Implementation Plan was determined by several factors that are inherently connected with the processes of internationalisation. The Guidelines for Internationalisation of Teaching and Learning at Vilnius University (https://www.vu.lt/apiemus/dokumentai#kiti-dokumentai) were developed and authorised by the VU Senate with its main goal to integrate an international dimension into studies at the University in order to contribute to the achievement of strategic directions specified in the University’s Strategic Plan (https://www.vu.lt/site_files/VILNIAUS_UNIVERSITETO_STRATEGINIS_PLANAS_20212025.pdf). The language policy document was therefore seen as a necessary strategic instrument that would complement the process of internationalisation.

The fact that Vilnius University has been a member of the Arqus European University Alliance has also contributed to the need of drafting an institutional language policy. Moreover, the Alliance has been working on the development of the Arqus Language Policy Charter, which has accordingly inspired member universities to rethink and reshape their institutional language policies.

Although VU has a document defining the teaching and learning of languages – The Concept of Foreign Language Teaching of VU (https://www.vu.lt/site_files/Reguliaminas/U%C5%BEsienio_kalb%C5%B3_mokymosi_koncepcija.pdf) – authorised by the VU Senate in 2012, this covers only the area of foreign language teaching. It needed to be renewed in line with the challenges for internationalisation that VU faces today.

The other questions as outlined in LERU (Kortmann 2019) had to be addressed as well. Firstly, it was important to look at the role English and other foreign languages play in the classroom and in academic discourse as compared to the national Lithuanian language, the use of which is determined by Lithuanian laws. Clearly, appropriate linguistic skills are necessary for academic discourse in the national language as well as in other languages as these are key to academic education and scholarly publications at higher education institutions. Consequently, another important issue was to define the necessary level of foreign language(s) for students and the academic staff relevant to the academic discipline, and to (academic) English. Next, the quality assurance and enhancement of teaching of foreign languages and the use of English as the medium of instruction for entire degree programmes also had to be considered. This involved the preparedness of the academic staff for the delivery of EMI courses. The other issue of importance was the preparedness of the non-academic staff (e.g. librarians and administrators) to communicate with international students and scholars and provide support. Finally, the support provided to international researchers and their families, as well as to international students concerning the acquisition of Lithuanian also had to be addressed.

1.3. The Process of the Development of the VU Language Policy Guidelines and its Structure

The process of developing the VU Language Policy Guidelines involved an establishment of an initial working group, which was later extended to a larger group to integrate representatives of all the faculties of Vilnius University, the Central Administration, and Students Representation in order to make the preparation process participatory and transparent. Firstly, a thorough analysis of language policies at several European universities (Austrian, Belgian, Check, German, Polish, Scandinavian, and Baltic), including the universities of LERU (Kortmann 2019), as well as several US universities was carried out by the initial working group before the discussions with the larger extended working group started. This analysis revealed the reasons why universities have their institutional language policies. Evidently, universities seek to have a balance between internationalisation and the use of English as a language of communication on the one hand, and their state national languages on the other, thus defining the extent to which these languages are to be used in the areas of studies, research, governance and university community life.

The analysis of information about institutional language policies at the above-listed universities served as a basis for further steps of the extended working group to be taken. The working group was divided into three subgroups to discuss language policy issues in multiple areas of university life: studies, research, community and governance. The discussions within the subgroups took place in a bottom-up manner in order to identify the needs for the language policy at VU.

The first subgroup responsible for studies analysed the internationalisation process of the study programmes, the need for more EMI courses, the teachers’ preparedness for EMI courses as well as the necessary support to be provided to them, and students’ responses to the quality issues of EMI courses. Concern has been expressed that the quality of the Lithuanian language courses for academic purposes needs to be raised and that the courses for Lithuanian as a foreign language need to be also offered to international students more extensively. In addition, ESP courses needed to be provided to students in all BA-cycle study programmes at VU, and opportunities to study other languages also need to be made available.

The emergent issues discussed within the second subgroup in charge of research revolved mainly around the languages of scholarly publications, dissemination of research in Lithuania and abroad, the creation and sustainability of academic discourse in the Lithuanian language with a strong focus on the development of terminology in many areas of research, and the publication of textbooks and teaching materials in the Lithuanian language. The group highlighted the need to publish research in English and/or other languages in order to raise the visibility of the Lithuanian researchers and to obtain more international acknowledgement of their research.

The third group discussed issues pertaining to multilingualism and the use of other languages than the state language within the university community in the context of internationalisation, highlighting the need for support for the improvement of linguistic-communicative competence and the possibility of English and other language courses for academic and non-academic staff in order to meet the needs of the multilingual and multicultural environment at the university.

The VU Language Policy Guidelines were drafted on the basis of the insights gained from the discussions within the subgroups of the extended working group. Reference was made to the following documents: VU Statute^[1], VU vision, mission, and values^[2], VU Strategic Plan of 2021–2025^[3], VU Guidelines of Internationalisation^[4], the Law of the State Language of the Republic of Lithuania⁵, and the Law of Research and Studies of the Republic of Lithuania⁶. The institutional Language Policy document of VU was meant to have two major parts: the Language Policy Guidelines and the Implementation Plan. The Guidelines consisted of six parts: 1. The Preamble, 2. The Aims of the Language Policy, 3. The Use of Languages at University with the following subsections: the Lithuanian Language Use, English Language Use and the Use of Other Languages, 4. Studies, 5. Research, 6. University Communication, Administration and Community.

In order to maintain the participatory and transparent nature of the development of the document, the blueprint for the VU Language Policy Guidelines was introduced to the academic community, the governing bodies and the Vilnius University Senate. Although numerous rigorous cycles of presentation and discussion as well as feedback and correction lasted for two years, the document has not yet been approved. There was a necessity to provide a plan for the implementation of the Language Policy Guidelines to show the necessary steps to be taken in order to show how the policy will work in practice. As it has been discussed before, another important aspect that emerged in the preparatory process was that the main opinions held by the stakeholder groups diverged. A more detailed analysis of the main stakeholder groups’ attitudes to language policy issues at VU was therefore initiated. The following section presents the students’ viewpoints on the language policy and the development of multilingualism at VU, mostly focusing on the teaching and learning process of a range of various languages.

3.1 Students’ viewpoints on the subject-specific Lithuanian language studies at Vilnius University

One of the research objectives was to determine students’ viewpoints on the studies of the subject-specific Lithuanian language. Figure 2 provides information on how many of the students had already studied such a subject within the framework of their study programmes or were still studying this.

Figure-2: The percentage of the respondents who had taken a subject-specific Lithuanian language course (module) in their study programme

It seems clear that only one-third of the respondents were able to express their opinion on a subject-specific Lithuanian language course in their study programmes or modules as they had either taken it or were taking it at the time the research study was being carried out. This could be explained by the fact that not all the study programmes at VU include such a course or module in their study programmes.

The following question was included in order to determine if students were satisfied with the quality of their subject-specific Lithuanian language course (module) (in terms of progress, content and teaching/implementation). This question was answered only by one-third of the respondents as well. Their answers to this question are provided in Table 4.

Table 4: The respondents’ satisfaction with the quality of their subject-specific Lithuanian language course (module) (in terms of student progress, content and teaching/implementation)

It should be again pointed out that the data presented in Table 4 refer only to those students (N=132) who had a subject-specific course in their study programmes. It is evident that a fairly positive evaluation prevails as 89 students answered yes or rather yes, around 30 students expressed their negative opinion, and the minority (12 students) did not have an opinion about their subject-specific Lithuanian language course.

The other question that the students had to answer in the survey was about the necessity of a subject-specific language course in their study programmes. Figure 3 below provides the respondents’ views.

Figure-3: Students’ viewpoints on the necessity of a subject-specific Lithuanian language course (module) in their study programmes.

Clearly, the fourth-year students are the group who view a subject-specific Lithuanian course to be most necessary. Generally, the trend to evaluate such a course within their study programmes as important seems to increase through the years of studies. Presumably, when students write their BA papers, they come to understand that they lack subject-specific terminology in the Lithuanian language.

Another important issue of the research study was to establish in what languages students generally read the academic literature for their studies. Figure 4 shows the distribution of languages as identified by the students who participated in the research study.

Figure 4: Languages students mostly read academic literature in for their studies

As is seen from the data provided in Figure 4, students mostly read academic literature necessary for their future professional areas in the English language. Evidently, English remains the prevailing language throughout all the years of their studies. It can be assumed that the most recent literature is mainly found in the English language; therefore, students read more in English than in Lithuanian.

3.2 Students’ viewpoints on the subject-specific English language studies at Vilnius University

The other important aspect of the survey was to determine the respondents’ views on a subject-specific English language course at Vilnius University. As our Language Policy Guidelines have not yet been approved, the foreign language teaching is based on the official document the Concept of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning at Vilnius University, which was approved by the Vilnius University Senate in 2012. According to this document, the first foreign language should be included in BA study programmes as a compulsory subject.

Figure 5 demonstrates the inclusion of a subject-specific English language course in a study programme per faculties at VU.

3.1 Students’ viewpoints on the possibilities of other language studies at Vilnius University

The final part of the survey was meant to identify students’ views on the possibilities of second language studies at Vilnius University. Figure 8 below demonstrates students’ awareness of the opportunities at Vilnius University to study other languages.

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Roma Kriaučiūnienė: Doctor of Social Sciences (Education), Professor, Director of the Institute of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Philology, Vilnius University.
Office address: Universiteto str. 5 LT- 01131, Vilnius, Lithuania, telephone number +370 5 268 7266. Email: roma.kriauciuniene@flf.vu.lt

Rasa Šlikaitė: Head of the Study Quality Unit, Central Administration of Vilnius University, Vilnius University.

Office address: Universiteto str. 3 LT- 01131, Vilnius, Lithuania, telephone number +370 5 268 7055. Email: rasa.slikaite@cr.vu.lt