Topics in Foreign Language Teaching in Research Articles in Psycholinguistics: Reviewing the State-of-the-Art

2.1. The Corpus and Research Methodology

Based upon the inclusion criteria, the corpus of the study was collected. The corpus was comprised of the RAs that were published on the official websites of EEJPL and PL, respectively, between 2014 and 2022. The corpus cut-off may be explained by the fact that EEJPL was established in 2014, whereas PL was founded in 2008. Hence, in order to balance the corpus and avoid the potential skewness, it was decided to base the corpus collection on the issues published by EEJPL and PL starting from 2014 onwards. Given that both EEJPL and PL share overlapping aims and scope, the corpus was not divided into two subcorpora (i.e., one subcorpus per journal) in order to contrast them. On the contrary, the RAs irrespectively of whether they were published in EEJPL or PL were merged into one corpus that was collected according to the identical set of inclusion criteria outlined in Table 1 above.

The descriptive statistics of the corpus were computed in the software program Statistical Package for Social Sciences or SPSS (IBM 2011). It should be noted that references and the abstracts in Ukrainian were excluded from the total word count and, subsequently, from the corpus analysis. The descriptive statistics, inclusive of mean words and standard deviation, were outlined in Table 2.

Table-2: The Descriptive Statistics of the Corpus

It should be reiterated that the corpus, to an extent, is reflective of the differences in the journals’ submission requirements, which are, as mentioned, 5000 words in EEJP and 7000 in PL. The differences can account for a substantial standard deviation (SD) in terms of the words in the corpus.

As far as the procedure in the study was concerned, it followed a similar approach reported in Kapranov (2022). Specifically, the corpus was searched manually for the presence of research topics associated with FLT that were elucidated through the lens of psycholinguistics (see RQ 1) and the meta-data pertaining to the authors of the FLT-themed RAs (see RQ 2). Additionally, the corpus was examined for the distribution of RAs between 2014 and 2022. The following methodological procedure of the corpus analysis should be specified in more detail. First, each RA in the corpus was downloaded from the respective website as a pdf file and, subsequently, converted into a Word file in order to calculate the total number of words, mean words and standard deviations. Second, each RA was searched for the year of publication, the number of authors and/or co-authors, the author/authors’ gender and affiliation that were quantified in SPSS (IBM 2011). Third, each RA was searched for the explicit reference/references to the major research theme/themes associated with FLT. Importantly, it should be emphasised that the search was conducted manually by means of referring to the RA’s title, key words, abstract, and the text of the article. The RA’s text was read several times in order to identify the presence of FLT-themed content and its discursive representations. The explicit reference to the FLT topic/topics in the RA was considered crucial in the corpus analysis. In other words, the identification of the FLT-related theme in each RA was based upon the RA author’s/authors’ explicit reference to it. Moreover, each RA was read meticulously in order to establish whether or not the presence of an FLT topic was concomitant with the explicit references to non-FLT-related psycholinguistic content. That was done in order to discover whether or not an FLT-related topic was the major research theme or, alternatively, it was subsumed under the aegis of another non-FLT-related topic. Finally, the corpus was investigated for a direct reference to human participants. In case the RA had a specific mention of the participants, their total number (inclusive of the control group) was noted and quantified in SPSS (IBM 2011). The results of the corpus analysis were discussed in conjunction with the research questions in the article, RQ 1 and RQ 2, respectively.

2.2. Results and General Discussion

In total, the application of the inclusion criteria provided in Table 1 has yielded 40 RAs written by 79 authors and published in EEJPL and PL within the period of time 2014-2022. Let us briefly dwell upon the range of FLs that the FLT-themed RAs in the corpus are centred on. The analysis points to English as the most frequently researched FL in the corpus, which is followed by German. However, other FLs (e.g., Ukrainian) receive less scholarly attention. Notably, there are no RAs in the corpus that investigate FLT-related topics in French as an FL or Spanish as an FL. Typically, the RAs’ authors focus on one FL per RA, with the exception of the RA by Taichi and Hung (2016), who discuss two FLs simultaneously. These findings are illustrated by Table 3 below.

Table-3: The Distribution of Foreign Languages per RA in the Corpus

It is seen in Table 3 that, whilst the major bulk of the RAs is associated with English in the FLT contexts, Slavic languages, as well as South-East Asian languages, appear to be epiphenomenal in the current psycholinguistic scholarship that is published in EEJPL and PL, respectively. In this regard, it is argued that the dominance of English in psycholinguistic RAs on the topic of FLT is reflective of the ever-increasing spread and influence of English in Eastern Europe (Lanvers & Chambers 2019). Also, the present findings reveal a substantial gap in psycholinguistic scholarship in Ukraine, which both EEJPL and PL are associated with, in terms of the absence of attention to French and Spanish as FLs. Hopefully, the findings will serve as an indication of the current knowledge gap in psycholinguistic scholarship in Eastern Europe and open new avenues for investigating FLT-related content as far as French and Spanish as FLs are concerned.

The corpus analysis has yielded another noteworthy finding concerning the distribution of the RAs in diachrony. In terms of the mean (M) values, it follows from the corpus analysis that both EEJPL and PL publish, on average, five RAs that are FLT-themed per year (M RAs = 5.0; SD = 2.0). However, as far as the absolute values are concerned, the distribution of the RAs in diachrony is irregular and characterised by several decreases in the frequency of FLT-themed RAs, especially in 2017 and 2019, whilst there are no RAs on FLT-related topics in 2018. These findings are illustrated by Figure 1.

Figure 1: The Distribution of the FLT-Themed RAs in the Corpus per Year from 2014 to 2022

The data summarised in Figure 1 above are in concord with the prior literature (Kapranov 2022) that also points to an uneven distribution of RAs in applied linguistics and psycholinguistics in diachrony. Following the literature (Kapranov 2022), there are several potential variables that account for the varied publication frequency of psycholinguistic RAs on the topic of FLT. In particular, the frequency of publications is assumed to be indicative of the individual scholar’s and/or university’s research foci or lack thereof, the presence or, alternatively, absence of research funding on the FLT-related topics, and, in addition, lengthy periods of data collection and analysis that may prolong the process of RA writing and, consequently, publishing. These variables, amongst others, provide an explanation of the absence of any published psycholinguistic research on FLT in 2018 (see Figure 1). Having outlined some general considerations associated with the findings, let us proceed to discussing the RQs (i.e., RQ 1 and RQ 2) in the study.

2.2.1. The Discussion of RQ 1

As already indicated in the introduction, RQ 1 aims at identifying FLT research topics and their psycholinguistic interpretations in the corpus of RAs published in EEJPL and PL. The analysis of the corpus has revealed several FLT topics that are addressed via a variety of psycholinguistic approaches. Specifically, the RAs in the corpus (N = 40) involve 15 FLT-related research topics that are summarised in Table 4. In particular, the FLT research topics are shown in Table 4 as the percentage of similarly FLT-themed RAs, for instance, the RAs that investigate speaking in FLT contexts, to the total number of RAs in the corpus (100%). It should be noted that the FLT-related topics in Table 4 are given in the descending order from the most frequent topic to the least frequently investigated ones in the corpus.

Table-4: FLT Themes Associated with Psycholinguistic Research Approaches in RAs in the Corpus

It is seen in Table 4 that the FLT-related topics associated with translation and interpreting, FL speaking, and FL general proficiency are rather frequent in the corpus. Let us focus our discussion on these topics in more detail. The finding that FLT-themed RAs on translation and interpreting are frequent is accounted for by several variables. First, the presence of FLT-related topics that are subsumed under the umbrella of research in translation and interpreting correlates with a psycholinguistic tradition of investigating interpreting and, less so, translation. Following the seminal publication of Goldman-Eisler (1972) on cognitive, psycholinguistic, and temporal aspects of simultaneous interpreting, there is a wealth of psycholinguistic studies, mostly undertaken in the 2000s (Ahrens 2005; Kapranov & Vik-Tuovinen 2008), which pay attention to this research area. Evidently, the present findings point to the research continuum between interpreting and translation in the traditional psycholinguistic paradigm in the West and the current attention to this field of study in Eastern Europe, in particular in Ukraine. In Western Europe nowadays, however, psycholinguistic studies in translation and interpreting are not so numerous (Godfroid & Hopp 2022).

The second variable that helps explain the frequency of RAs on FLT within the context of translation and interpreting stems from the fact that Ukraine has a longstanding tradition of teaching translation and interpreting at several research-intensive HEIs that have substantial expertise in this field (Vakhovska & Isaienko 2021). Additionally, it should be noted that the current interest and, subsequently, FLT-themed RAs in the context of translation and interpreting are sustained by Ukraine’s integration into a number of transatlantic (e.g., NATO) and European (e.g., the European Union) alliances, whose accession involves a substantial bulk of official documents to be translated and international meetings to be interpreted (Rabinovych & Egert 2023).

The third variable that sheds light on the frequency of the FLT-themed RAs on translation and interpreting is that one of the research aims of EEJPL is focused on translation and interpreting from a psycholinguistic perspective (http://eejpl.vnu.edu.ua/index.php/eejpl/aims). Hence, it is logical that the journal’s aims and scope attract manuscript submissions that involve studies on translation and interpreting. Taking these three variables into consideration, it is not surprising that the theme of FLT under the aegis of translation and interpreting appears to be the most frequent one in the corpus. Apparently, a relatively high number of psycholinguistic RAs written at the intersection of translation and interpreting studies and FLT form a research facet that is common to Ukrainian and, more broadly, the Eastern European psycholinguistic school of thought.

The analysis of the RAs on translation and interpreting indicates that the topic of FLT is embedded into them without being foregrounded (see, for instance, Kapranov (2014a) and Zasiekin (2014)). The FLT component is represented in the RAs on translation and interpreting by mentioning the teaching and learning of FL vocabulary, as well as FL writing. In particular, both vocabulary and writing are referred to within the language combinations English-Ukrainian (e.g., translation from English into Ukrainian) and Ukrainian-English (e.g., simultaneous interpreting from Ukrainian into English). However, the aforementioned topics do not seem to be referred to frequently (see Table 4). Typically, however, the majority of the RAs on translation and interpreting touch upon the need to pay more attention to the teaching of the FL, in particular English, in the context of undergraduate and Master’s courses in translation and interpreting. The RAs’ emphasis on the importance of authentic input in undergraduate courses in interpreting and translation is in concord with the prior psycholinguistic literature that acknowledges the role of institutional contexts in determining a didactic framework for the linguo-didactic foci, inclusive of the impact associated with the FL exposure and the length of the instruction, i.e. the course duration (Arabski & Wojtaszek 2011; Camilleri 1996; Gabryś-Barker 2022; Leow 2023; Saito & Hanzawa 2016; Speed, Wnuk, & Majid 2018; Swales 2000).

The second frequent group of the FLT-related RAs in the corpus is centred on FL speaking (see Table 4). The frequency of this topic in the corpus is accounted by the so-called communicate turn in FLT (Kramsch 2013) with its emphasis on oral communicative skills (Borghetti 2013). Guided by the global trend of prioritising oral communication, the FLT-related RAs in the corpus address such aspects of FL speaking as, for instance, the link between aural comprehension and FL speaking, which corresponds to the prior psycholinguistic studies on the role of segmental properties in speaking the FL fluently (Burns 1998). Unlike the prior literature (Freed, Segalowitz, & Dewey 2004; Kapranov 2013; Magnan & Back 2007; Segalowitz & Freed 2004), however, the FLT-related RAs on FL speaking do not appear to investigate the connection between an FL learner’s stay abroad and FL speaking and FL fluency. Instead, the FLT-related RAs on FL speaking explore cognitive, motivational, and analytical skills of the FL learner that are involved in FL speaking. This research focus is in line with the previous literature in psycholinguistics (Kostikova et al. 2020), which argues that the aforementioned variables should be factored in when teaching FL speaking. Contrary to the literature (Ellis & Beaton 1993; Hedgcock & Lefkowitz 1992; Kostikova et al. 2020; Manchón 2023; Swain 2000; Zhang 2013), however, there are no RAs that inspect the diagnostic role of writing in achieving FL fluency and ameliorating FL speaking. Hopefully, this finding will stimulate the journals’ prospective and current authors to address this issue in their future manuscripts.

The third frequent group of FLT-related RAs in the corpus explores FL proficiency. The notion of FL proficiency, or mastery in the FL, is regarded in the RAs through the lens of four basic skills in FL, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Typically, though, an FLT-related RA on FL proficiency limits itself to the combination of two or three skills, usually represented by reading and writing, or speaking and listening. Such an approach is in concord with the previous studies in psycholinguistics, which point to mutually dependent skills in the process of FL acquisition (Hedgcock & Lefkowitz 1992; Manchón 2023). Specifically, the FLT-related RAs in the corpus are indicative of the synergy effects of teaching speaking and writing, which is also supported by the prior studies (Demirezen 2004; Ellis & Beaton 1993; Manchón 2023; Miller, Lindgren, & Sullivan 2008; Ney 1974; Wolff 2000). At the same time, however, the FLT-related RAs on FL proficiency appear to take no notice of the psycholinguistic literature on the role of the FL learner’s memory in attaining FL proficiency levels. In particular, the RAs in the corpus disregard the construals of the FL learner’s declarative and procedural memory, which are routinely investigated in Western European and Anglo-Saxon psycholinguistic studies in relation to FLT (Buffington, Demos, & Morgan-Short 2021; Dixon et al. 2012; Li 2023; Morgan-Short & Ullman 2023; Shin 2020; Siek-Piskozub, Wach, & Raulinajtys 2008). Furthermore, the corpus analysis of the FLT-related RAs on FL proficiency has not yielded any RAs that make use of the construal of phonological memory, which, in contrast, is amply represented in a substantial number of psycholinguistic studies in the West (Dufva & Voeten 1999; Williams & Lovatt 2003).

Let us now draw our attention to the less frequent FLT-related topics (see Table 4). Judging from the data, some of them do not focus on FLT exclusively, but refer to it indirectly within the scope of more prominent linguo-didactic foci, such as, for instance, the topics “English-medium instruction (EMI)”, “FL acquisition by immigrant children”, “FL anxiety”, “FL speaking”, and “FL syntax”. They are less numerous in contrast to the FLT-themed RAs on translation and interpreting, though (see Table 4). The findings indicate that six out of 15 FLT-related research themes represent a conflated research space that combines a minor focus on FLT with a more substantial focal point on psycholinguistic phenomena.

Unlike the aforementioned six themes, however, nine research themes in the corpus are centred on FLT only, for instance, “FL assessment”, “FL comprehension”, “FL intercultural competence”, “FL morpho-semantics”, “FL general proficiency”, “FL teaching practice”, “FL reading”, “FL vocabulary”, and “FL writing”. Notably, among them there does not seem to be an FLT-related topic that is dedicated specifically to the context of FL learning as described in the international literature on psycholinguistics (Gabryś-Barker 2022; Leow 2023; Pikhart, Klimova, & Ruschel 2023). Interestingly, the issue of the context is sufficiently addressed in the research themes with a minor focus on FLT, such as “FL acquisition by immigrant children” and “FL syntax”, respectively.

There are, however, major research themes in the corpus that are in line with the current international literature, for instance “FL writing” aligns with psycholinguistic inquiries into FLT and an FL learner’s writing skills that are described by Demirezen (2004), Manchón (2023), and Miller, Lindgren, and Sullivan (2008). Similarly, the research theme “FL assessment” appears to be in concord with the recent studies by international psycholinguists, who investigate FL assessment in FLT contexts from a psycholinguistic perspective (Healy & Bourne Jr 2013; Hulstijn 2023; Schoonen 2023). Likewise, the FLT-related theme “FL intercultural competence” in the corpus shares identical linguo-didactic foci with the recent international scholarship (Gabryś-Barker 2022). Whilst there is a significant overlap between the FLT-centred research themes in the corpus and the international literature, some of the research themes, such as “FL teaching practice”, could be referred to as corpus-specific due to the absence of analogous studies in the international psycholinguistic line of inquiry.

In terms of the research methodology that is employed in the RAs in the corpus, it has been established that the majority of studies could be described as quantitative, as seen in Table 5 below.

Table-5: Research Methodology in RAs in the Corpus

Table-6: The Number of Participants in the RAs in the Corpus

It follows from Table 6 that the RAs in the corpus involve, predominantly, undergraduate students (total number = 2187, mean (M) = 99.4, standard deviation (SD) = 99.4) that comprise 68.5 % of all participants, whilst post-graduate students are represented less extensively (total number = 90, M = 18.0, SD = 11.8, 2.8% of all participants). The other types of participants in the corpus are i) primary school students (total number = 573, M = 114.6, SD = 85.8), who account for 17.9 % of all participants; ii) secondary school students (total number = 46, M = 23.0, SD = 22.0, 1.4 % of all participants), and iii) FL learners with unspecified affiliation (total number = 222, M = 111.0, SD = 9.0, 6.9% of all participants). Additionally, the corpus of RAs involves a group of 75 FL instructors (2.3% of the total number of participants). Notably, one study provides a category of participants, but does not specify their number (Buchatska 2015).

Summarising the discussion of RQ 1, we argue that the majority of the FLT-related RAs in the corpus are on the topic of translation and interpreting, where the issue of FLT seems to be secondary. The majority of the studies employ quantitative methodology that is applied to investigate FLT-related topics with the participants, who are undergraduate students. As far as the authorship of the RAs in the study is concerned, it is discussed in the following subsection of the article.

2.2.2. The Discussion of RQ 2

As indicated in the introduction, RQ 2 in the study seeks to provide the authors’ meta-data. The corpus analysis indicates that the RAs are, mostly, single-authored (47.5%), as evident from Table 7.

Table-7: The Distribution of the RAs’ Authorship in the Corpus

The distribution of the authorship in the corpus is reflective of the journals’ submission requirements. As previously mentioned, EEJPL allows multiple co-authorship, whilst PL prefers the maximum of two authors per RA, with a number of exceptions (see section 2). The results of the corpus analysis reveal that that there are 79 authors in total, whose meta-data are outlined in Table 8.

Table-8: The Meta-Data Associated with the RAs’ Authors

It is evident from Table 8 that the majority of the authors are female. This finding seems novel, given that there are no current reviews of psycholinguistic scholarship that quantify the gender composition of its authorship. In this regard, it should be mentioned that reviews of RAs in psycholinguistic and psycholinguistic discourse are still rare (Gabryś-Barker 2022). Hopefully, the present review will open new avenues to explore in terms of systematising the meta-data related to the psycholinguistic authorship.

As far as the RAs authors’ background is concerned, it follows from Table 8 that one half of the total number of authors hail from Ukraine (51.9%), with the authors representing Mykhailo Kotsyubynskyi Vinnytsia State Pedagogical University being the most prolific in the corpus. Apart from the authors who are associated with Ukrainian HEIs, a substantial authorial body hails from Iranian HEIs, as well as from HEIs that are located in France, Sweden, and the United States of America.

Synopsising the discussion of RQ 2, it appears feasible to suggest that in terms of the authorship, a typical FLT-related RA in the corpus is written by a female author, who is affiliated with a Ukrainian HEI.

Acknowledgements

The author is thankful to the editor and the anonymous reviewers, whose constructive criticism is highly appreciated.

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East European Journal of Psycholinguistics. Available at: http://eejpl.vnu.edu.ua/index.php/eejpl/issue/archive.

Psycholinguistics. Available at: https://psycholing-journal.com/index.php/journal/issue/archive.

Oleksandr Kapranov: Dr, PhD, associate professor at NLA University College, campus Oslo (Norway). Address: Pb 7153, St. Olavs plass, 0130 Oslo, Norway. Tel. + 47 55 54 07 00, email: oleksandr.kapranov@nla.no